Guinness Gold Silver Ireland Map Flag Coin Irish Pint Glass St Paddys Day Drink • £5.99 (2025)

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Seller: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (35,495) 99.8%, Location: Manchester, Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 316493582506 Guinness Gold Silver Ireland Map Flag Coin Irish Pint Glass St Paddys Day Drink. Vietnam Saigon Special,333. Zimbabwe MOSI LAGER. See also: International Financial Services Centre, Dublin. Ginnell, Laurence (1894). T. Fisher Unwin. Highest point Carrauntoohil. Including surrounding islands. Guinness Coin Ireland Map Flag Green, Silver & Gold Plated Coin in the Shape of Ireland They are the colours of the Irish Flag with a Pint of Guinness in the Middle The Back has a label from a Guinness Bottle It is 70mm across from the West of Cork to the North of Antrim and weights approx. 27 grams or 1 ounce Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectable Keepsake to an Amazing Country and The World's Favourite Beer Like all my Auctions Bidding starts a a penny with no reserve... if your the only bidder you win it for 1p...Grab a Bargain! I have a lot of Irish on Ebay so Please Check out my other items ! Bid with Confidence - Check My Almost 100% Positive Feedback from over 30,000 Satisfied Customers Check out my other items ! All Payment Methods in All Major Currencies Accepted. Be sure to add me to your favourites list ! All Items Dispatched within 24 hours of Receiving Payment . Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! Guinness Brewery brewery, Dublin, Ireland Written by Fact-checked by Last Updated: Jul 31, 2024 • Article History Guiness Brewery Guiness Brewery See all media Areas Of Involvement: brewing Recent News July 30, 2024, 6:14 AM ET (Irish Times) Diageo slumps to first annual sales decline since 2020 Guinness Brewery, brewery at St. James’s Gate in Dublin, Ireland, where, according to legend, the Guinness brand of dry stout—famed for its black color (created by adding roasted barley), creamy head, and distinctive taste—has been produced since 1759. In 1759 Arthur Guinness, an ale brewer, signed a 9,000-year lease for the abandoned St. James’s Gate Brewery in Dublin. He added the new dry stout, based on a porter style then popular in London, in 1778, and it was so successful that the production of ordinary ale was dropped within a few years. Arthur Guinness became a wealthy and influential man, but the family dynamo was his nephew Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, who was given a baronetcy and was probably the richest man in Ireland when he died. He was the principal creator of the modern business, and he enlarged the Dublin brewery until it became, for a time, the biggest in the world. During his time, the Guinness family came to own the brewery outright. It had its own railway and its own fleet of barges to carry consignments to the port of Dublin for shipment abroad. In the 1930s, some 5,000 people worked at the brewery, and the firm was perhaps the city’s biggest employer. The Guinnesses themselves joined the English aristocracy as earls of Iveagh and were noted charitable benefactors. The Guinness Storehouse, opened in 2000 in a former fermentation plant in the heart of the giant brewery complex, tells the story of the beer and the brand. A special gallery honors John Gilroy, artist and creator of many of the famous 1930s and 1940s advertisements (“My Goodness, My Guinness” and so on). The glass-walled Gravity Bar at the top commands views over Dublin and offers visitors what has been described as “the best pint you will ever experience.” The Guiness Brewery brews all the Guinness beer sold in the U.K. and Ireland, and it is the biggest tourist attraction in Dublin. Dublin, city, capital of Ireland, located on the east coast in the province of Leinster. Situated at the head of Dublin Bay of the Irish Sea, Dublin is the country’s chief port, centre of financial and commercial power, and seat of culture. It is also a city of contrasts, maintaining an uneasy relationship between reminders of earlier political and economic conditions and symbols of present-day life and prosperity. Area city, 45.5 square miles (118 square km). Pop. (2006) 506,211; Greater Dublin, 1,187,126; (2011) 527,612; Greater Dublin, 1,273,069. Guinness Irish company Also known as: Arthur Guinness & Sons PLC, Arthur Guinness Son & Co. Ltd., Guinness PLC Guinness brewery, Dublin The Guinness brewery in Dublin, Ireland. © WendyOlsenPhotography—iStock Unreleased/Getty Images Formerly (1986–97):Guinness PLC (1982–86):Arthur Guinness & Sons PLC , and (1886–1982):Arthur Guinness Son & Co. Ltd. Date:1759 - 1997 Ticker:DEO Share Price:$121.08 (mkt close, Aug. 06, 2024) Market Cap:$66.72 bil. Annual Revenue:$20.27 bil. Earnings Per Share (Prev. Year):$0.0 Sector:Manufacturing Industry:Beverages CEO:Ivan Menezes Recent News Aug. 7, 2024, 5:59 AM UTC(AP) Teen vies for record solo flight to 7 continents to raise money for childhood cancer research Guinness, former company, incorporated in 1886 as Arthur Guinness Son & Co. Ltd., best known as the brewer of a distinctive dark and creamy stout. In 1997 the company merged with Grand Metropolitan PLC to form Diageo PLC. Guinness remains a brand of that company, which is headquartered in London. Guinness was founded when Arthur Guinness bought a small brewery in Dublin in 1759. At first the brewery produced a variety of ales and beers, but in 1799 it was decided to concentrate exclusively on porter, a dark beer with a rich head. The beer, later known as stout, prospered and came to be regarded as the national beer of Ireland. Guinness died in 1803, and his son Arthur took over the family business and greatly expanded sales to Great Britain. By 1833 Guinness was the largest brewery in Ireland. In 1855 Arthur’s son Benjamin Lee Guinness took over the company upon his father’s death. The beer had long had a strong following in the British Isles, and Benjamin spread its fame overseas. Guinness’s stout gained a reputation for its nutritional and invigorating properties, and by 1883 the company was the world’s largest brewery. A brewery opened at Park Royal in London in 1936 was soon outproducing the Dublin site. In the 1950s the company began producing Harp lager to fill demand for lighter brews. Flag of Ireland Britannica Quiz The Irish Quiz In 1985 the firm acquired Arthur Bell & Sons PLC, a distiller of Scotch whisky, and in 1986 it bought The Distillers Co. PLC, which was the largest Scotch distiller in the world. Guinness’s use of clandestine and apparently illegal stock transactions in acquiring Distillers created a major corporate scandal when these acts became known to the public. Guinness’s merger in 1997 with food and beverage company Grand Metropolitan PLC resulted in a company, Diageo, that was the world’s biggest seller of spirits. In 1955 the company began publishing The Guinness Book of Records, originally conceived to help settle trivia disputes in pubs; the property was sold in 2001. Ireland Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Appearance Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Coordinates: 53°26′58″N 07°30′11″W Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the island. For the sovereign state, see Republic of Ireland. For the part of the United Kingdom, see Northern Ireland. For other uses, see Ireland (disambiguation). Ireland Éire (Irish) Airlann (Ulster Scots) Satellite image of Ireland Satellite image, October 2010 Location of Ireland (dark green) in Europe (dark grey) Geography Location Northwestern Europe Coordinates 53°26′58″N 07°30′11″W Archipelago British Isles Adjacent to Atlantic Ocean Area 84,421 km2 (32,595 sq mi)[1] Area rank 20th[2] Coastline 7,527 km (4677.1 mi)[3][4] Highest elevation 1,041 m (3415 ft) Highest point Carrauntoohil Administration Republic of Ireland Largest city Dublin, pop. 1,458,154 Metropolitan Area (2022)[5] United Kingdom Country Northern Ireland Largest city Belfast, pop. 671,559 Metropolitan Area (2011)[6] Demographics Demonym Irish Population 7,185,600 (2023 estimate)[a][7] Population rank 19th Pop. density 82.2/km2 (212.9/sq mi) Languages EnglishIrishISLUlster ScotsNISLShelta Ethnic groups 90.0% White 2.8% Asian 1.2% Black 0.3% Arab 1.2% other (inc. Mixed) 4.5% not stated[8][9] Additional information Time zone Greenwich Mean Time (UTC+0) • Summer (DST) Irish Standard Time British Summer Time (UTC+1) Ireland (/ˈaɪərlənd/ ⓘ IRE-lənd; Irish: Éire [ˈeːɾʲə] ⓘ; Ulster-Scots: Airlann [ˈɑːrlən]) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George's Channel. Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest in the world.[10] Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially named Ireland), an independent state covering five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. As of 2022, the population of the entire island is just over 7 million, with 5.1 million living in the Republic of Ireland and 1.9 million in Northern Ireland, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain.[11] The geography of Ireland comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. Its lush vegetation is a product of its mild but changeable climate which is free of extremes in temperature. Much of Ireland was woodland until the end of the Middle Ages. Today, woodland makes up about 10% of the island, compared with a European average of over 33%,[12] with most of it being non-native conifer plantations.[13][14] The Irish climate is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and thus very moderate,[15] and winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, although summers are cooler than those in continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century AD. The island was Christianised from the 5th century onwards. During this period Ireland was divided into many petty kingships under provincial kingships (Cúige "fifth" of the traditional provinces) vying for dominance and the title of High King of Ireland. In the late 8th century to early 11th century AD Viking raids and settlement took place culminating in the Battle of Clontarf on 23 April 1014 which resulted in the ending of Viking power in Ireland. Following the 12th century Anglo-Norman invasion, England claimed sovereignty. However, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, and was extended during the 18th century. With the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. A war of independence in the early 20th century was followed by the partition of the island, leading to the creation of the Irish Free State, which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades until it declared a republic in 1948 ( Republic of Ireland Act, 1948) and Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s. This subsided following the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. In 1973, both the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, with Northern Ireland as part of it, joined the European Economic Community. Following a referendum vote in 2016, the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland included, left the European Union (EU) in 2020. Northern Ireland was granted a limited special status and allowed to operate within the EU single market for goods without being in the European Union.[16] Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the field of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, a strong indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music, Irish language, and Irish dance. The island's culture shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing, golf, and boxing. Etymology The names Ireland and Éire derive from Old Irish Ériu, a goddess in Irish mythology first recorded in the ninth century. The etymology of Ériu is disputed but may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *h2uer, referring to flowing water.[17] History Main article: History of Ireland Prehistoric Ireland Main article: Prehistoric Ireland During the last glacial period, and until about 16,000 BC, much of Ireland was periodically covered in ice.[18] The relative sea level was less than 50m lower resulting in an ice bridge (but not a land bridge) forming between Ireland and Great Britain.[19] By 14,000 BC this ice bridge existed only between Northern Ireland and Scotland and by 12,000 BC Ireland was completely separated from Great Britain.[20] Later, around 6,100 BC, Great Britain became separated from continental Europe.[21] Until recently, the earliest evidence of human activity in Ireland was dated at 12,500 years ago, demonstrated by a butchered bear bone found in a cave in County Clare.[22] Since 2021, the earliest evidence of human activity in Ireland is dated to 33,000 years ago.[23] By about 8,000 BC, more sustained occupation of the island has been shown, with evidence for Mesolithic communities around the island.[24] Some time before 4,000 BC, Neolithic settlers introduced cereal cultivars, domesticated animals such as cattle and sheep, built large timber buildings, and stone monuments.[25][18] The earliest evidence for farming in Ireland or Great Britain is from Ferriter's Cove, County Kerry, where a flint knife, cattle bones and a sheep's tooth were carbon-dated to c. 4,350 BC.[26] Field systems were developed in different parts of Ireland, including at the Céide Fields, that has been preserved beneath a blanket of peat in present-day Tyrawley. An extensive field system, arguably the oldest in the world,[27] consisted of small divisions separated by dry-stone walls. The fields were farmed for several centuries between 3,500 BC and 3,000 BC. Wheat and barley were the principal crops.[18] The Bronze Age began around 2,500 BC, with technology changing people's everyday lives during this period through innovations such as the wheel, harnessing oxen, weaving textiles, brewing alcohol and metalworking,[18] which produced new weapons and tools, along with fine gold decoration and jewellery, such as brooches and torcs. Emergence of Celtic Ireland How and when the island became Celtic has been debated for close to a century, with the migrations of the Celts being one of the more enduring themes of archaeological and linguistic studies. The most recent genetic research strongly associates the spread of Indo-European languages (including Celtic) through Western Europe with a people bringing a composite Beaker culture, with its arrival in Britain and Ireland dated to around the middle of the third millennium BC.[28] According to John T. Koch and others, Ireland in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-network culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age that also included Britain, western France and Iberia, and that this is where Celtic languages developed.[29][30][31][32] This contrasts with the traditional view that their origin lies in mainland Europe with the Hallstatt culture.[33] The Uragh Stone Circle, a Neolithic stone circle in Tuosist, close to Gleninchaquin Park, County Kerry The long-standing traditional view is that the Celtic language, Ogham script and culture were brought to Ireland by waves of invading or migrating Celts from mainland Europe. This theory draws on the Lebor Gabála Érenn, a medieval Christian pseudo-history of Ireland, along with the presence of Celtic culture, language and artefacts found in Ireland such as Celtic bronze spears, shields, torcs and other finely crafted Celtic associated possessions. The theory holds that there were four separate Celtic invasions of Ireland. The Priteni were said to be the first, followed by the Belgae from northern Gaul and Britain. Later, Laighin tribes from Armorica (present-day Brittany) were said to have invaded Ireland and Britain more or less simultaneously. Lastly, the Milesians (Gaels) were said to have reached Ireland from either northern Iberia or southern Gaul.[34] It was claimed that a second wave named the Euerni, belonging to the Belgae people of northern Gaul, began arriving about the sixth century BC. They were said to have given their name to the island.[35][36] The theory was advanced in part because of the lack of archaeological evidence for large-scale Celtic immigration, though it is accepted that such movements are notoriously difficult to identify. Historical linguists are skeptical that this method alone could account for the absorption of Celtic language, with some saying that an assumed processual view of Celtic linguistic formation is 'an especially hazardous exercise'.[37][38] Genetic lineage investigation into the area of Celtic migration to Ireland has led to findings that showed no significant differences in mitochondrial DNA between Ireland and large areas of continental Europe, in contrast to parts of the Y-chromosome pattern. When taking both into account, a study concluded that modern Celtic speakers in Ireland could be thought of as European "Atlantic Celts" showing a shared ancestry throughout the Atlantic zone from northern Iberia to western Scandinavia rather than substantially central European.[39] In 2012, research showed that the occurrence of genetic markers for the earliest farmers was almost eliminated by Beaker-culture immigrants: they carried what was then a new Y-chromosome R1b marker, believed to have originated in Iberia about 2,500 BC. The prevalence amongst modern Irish men of this mutation is a remarkable 84%, the highest in the world, and closely matched in other populations along the Atlantic fringes down to Spain. A similar genetic replacement happened with lineages in mitochondrial DNA.[26][40] This conclusion is supported by recent research carried out by the geneticist David Reich, who says: "British and Irish skeletons from the Bronze Age that followed the Beaker period had at most 10 per cent ancestry from the first farmers of these islands, with other 90 per cent from people like those associated with the Bell Beaker culture in the Netherlands." He suggests that it was Beaker users who introduced an Indo-European language, represented here by Celtic (i.e. a new language and culture introduced directly by migration and genetic replacement).[28] Late antiquity and early medieval times Main article: History of Ireland (800–1169) The Scoti were Gaelic-speaking people from Ireland who settled in western Scotland in the 6th century or before. The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical Greco-Roman geographers. Ptolemy in his Almagest refers to Ireland as Mikra Brettania ("Little Britain"), in contrast to the larger island, which he called Megale Brettania ("Great Britain").[41] In his map of Ireland in his later work, Geography, Ptolemy refers to Ireland as Iouernia and to Great Britain as Albion. These 'new' names were likely to have been the local names for the islands at the time. The earlier names, in contrast, were likely to have been coined before direct contact with local peoples was made.[42] The Romans referred to Ireland by this name too in its Latinised form, Hibernia, or Scotia.[43][44] Ptolemy records sixteen nations inhabiting every part of Ireland in 100 AD.[45] The relationship between the Roman Empire and the kingdoms of ancient Ireland is unclear. However, a number of finds of Roman coins have been made, for example at the Iron Age settlement of Freestone Hill near Gowran and Newgrange.[46] Ireland continued as a patchwork of rival kingdoms; however, beginning in the 7th century, a concept of national kingship gradually became articulated through the concept of a High King of Ireland. Medieval Irish literature portrays an almost unbroken sequence of high kings stretching back thousands of years, but some modern historians believe the scheme was constructed in the 8th century to justify the status of powerful political groupings by projecting the origins of their rule into the remote past.[47] All of the Irish kingdoms had their own kings but were nominally subject to the high king. The high king was drawn from the ranks of the provincial kings and ruled also the royal kingdom of Meath, with a ceremonial capital at the Hill of Tara. The concept did not become a political reality until the Viking Age and even then was not a consistent one.[48] Ireland did have a culturally unifying rule of law: the early written judicial system, the Brehon Laws, administered by a professional class of jurists known as the brehons.[49] The Chronicle of Ireland records that in 431, Bishop Palladius arrived in Ireland on a mission from Pope Celestine I to minister to the Irish "already believing in Christ".[50] The same chronicle records that Saint Patrick, Ireland's best known patron saint, arrived the following year. There is continued debate over the missions of Palladius and Patrick, but the consensus is that they both took place[51] and that the older druid tradition collapsed in the face of the new religion.[52] Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin and Greek learning and Christian theology. In the monastic culture that followed the Christianisation of Ireland, Latin and Greek learning was preserved in Ireland during the Early Middle Ages in contrast to elsewhere in Western Europe, where the Dark Ages followed the Fall of the Western Roman Empire.[52][53][page needed] A folio of the Book of Kells showing Christ enthroned The arts of manuscript illumination, metalworking and sculpture flourished and produced treasures such as the Book of Kells, ornate jewellery and the many carved stone crosses[54] that still dot the island today. A mission founded in 563 on Iona by the Irish monk Saint Columba began a tradition of Irish missionary work that spread Celtic Christianity and learning to Scotland, England and the Frankish Empire on continental Europe after the fall of Rome.[55] These missions continued until the late Middle Ages, establishing monasteries and centres of learning, producing scholars such as Sedulius Scottus and Johannes Eriugena and exerting much influence in Europe.[citation needed] From the 9th century, waves of Viking raiders plundered Irish monasteries and towns.[56] These raids added to a pattern of raiding and endemic warfare that was already deep-seated in Ireland. The Vikings were involved in establishing most of the major coastal settlements in Ireland: Dublin, Limerick, Cork, Wexford, Waterford, as well as other smaller settlements.[57][unreliable source?] Norman and English invasions Main articles: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland, History of Ireland (1169–1536), and Tudor conquest of Ireland See also: Bruce campaign in Ireland Remains of the 12th-century Trim Castle in County Meath, the largest Norman castle in Ireland On 1 May 1169, an expedition of Cambro-Norman knights, with an army of about 600 men, landed at Bannow Strand in present-day County Wexford. It was led by Richard de Clare, known as 'Strongbow' owing to his prowess as an archer.[58] The invasion, which coincided with a period of renewed Norman expansion, was at the invitation of Dermot Mac Murrough, King of Leinster.[59] In 1166, Mac Murrough had fled to Anjou, France, following a war involving Tighearnán Ua Ruairc, of Breifne, and sought the assistance of the Angevin King Henry II, in recapturing his kingdom. In 1171, Henry arrived in Ireland in order to review the general progress of the expedition. He wanted to re-exert royal authority over the invasion which was expanding beyond his control. Henry successfully re-imposed his authority over Strongbow and the Cambro-Norman warlords and persuaded many of the Irish kings to accept him as their overlord, an arrangement confirmed in the 1175 Treaty of Windsor. The invasion was legitimised by reference to provisions of the alleged Papal Bull Laudabiliter, issued by an Englishman, Adrian IV, in 1155. The document apparently encouraged Henry to take control in Ireland in order to oversee the financial and administrative reorganisation of the Irish Church and its integration into the Roman Church system.[60] Some restructuring had already begun at the ecclesiastical level following the Synod of Kells in 1152.[61] There has been significant controversy regarding the authenticity of Laudabiliter,[62] and there is no general agreement as to whether the bull was genuine or a forgery.[63][64] Further, it had no standing in the Irish legal system. Political boundaries in Ireland in 1450, before the plantations In 1172, Pope Alexander III further encouraged Henry to advance the integration of the Irish Church with Rome. Henry was authorised to impose a tithe of one penny per hearth as an annual contribution. This church levy called Peter's Pence, is extant in Ireland as a voluntary donation. In turn, Henry assumed the title of Lord of Ireland which Henry conferred on his younger son, John Lackland, in 1185. This defined the Anglo-Norman administration in Ireland as the Lordship of Ireland.[citation needed] When Henry's successor died unexpectedly in 1199, John inherited the crown of England and retained the Lordship of Ireland. Over the century that followed, Norman feudal law gradually replaced the Gaelic Brehon Law across large areas, so that by the late 13th century the Norman-Irish had established a feudal system throughout much of Ireland. Norman settlements were characterised by the establishment of baronies, manors, towns and the seeds of the modern county system. A version of Magna Carta (the Great Charter of Ireland), substituting Dublin for London and the Irish Church for, the English church at the time, the Catholic Church, was published in 1216 and the Parliament of Ireland was founded in 1297. Gaelicisation From the mid-14th century, after the Black Death, Norman settlements in Ireland went into a period of decline. The Norman rulers and the Gaelic Irish elites intermarried and the areas under Norman rule became Gaelicised. In some parts, a hybrid Hiberno-Norman culture emerged. In response, the Irish parliament passed the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1367. These were a set of laws designed to prevent the assimilation of the Normans into Irish society by requiring English subjects in Ireland to speak English, follow English customs and abide by English law.[65] By the end of the 15th century, central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared, and a renewed Irish culture and language, albeit with Norman influences, was again dominant. English Crown control remained relatively unshaken in an amorphous foothold around Dublin known as The Pale, and under the provisions of Poynings' Law of 1494, Irish Parliamentary legislation was subject to the approval of the English Privy Council.[66] The Kingdom of Ireland Main article: Kingdom of Ireland A 16th-century perception of Irish women and girls, illustrated in the manuscript "Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel". Painted by Lucas d'Heere in the 2nd half of the 16th century. Preserved in the Ghent University Library.[67] The title of King of Ireland was re-created in 1542 by Henry VIII, the then King of England, of the Tudor dynasty. English rule was reinforced and expanded in Ireland during the latter part of the 16th century, leading to the Tudor conquest of Ireland. A near-complete conquest was achieved by the turn of the 17th century, following the Nine Years' War and the Flight of the Earls. This control was consolidated during the wars and conflicts of the 17th century, including the English and Scottish colonisation in the Plantations of Ireland, the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Williamite War. Irish losses during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (which, in Ireland, included the Irish Confederacy and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland) are estimated to include 20,000 battlefield casualties. 200,000 civilians are estimated to have died as a result of a combination of war-related famine, displacement, guerrilla activity and pestilence throughout the war. A further 50,000[b] were sent into indentured servitude in the West Indies. Physician-general William Petty estimated that 504,000 Catholic Irish and 112,000 Protestant settlers died, and 100,000 people were transported, as a result of the war.[70] If a prewar population of 1.5 million is assumed, this would mean that the population was reduced by almost half. The religious struggles of the 17th century left a deep sectarian division in Ireland. Religious allegiance now determined the perception in law of loyalty to the Irish King and Parliament. After the passing of the Test Act 1672, and the victory of the forces of the dual monarchy of William and Mary over the Jacobites, Roman Catholics and nonconforming Protestant Dissenters were barred from sitting as members in the Irish Parliament. Under the emerging Penal Laws, Irish Roman Catholics and Dissenters were increasingly deprived of various civil rights, even the ownership of hereditary property. Additional regressive punitive legislation followed in 1703, 1709 and 1728. This completed a comprehensive systemic effort to materially disadvantage Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters while enriching a new ruling class of Anglican conformists.[71] The new Anglo-Irish ruling class became known as the Protestant Ascendancy. Half-hanging of suspected United Irishmen The "Great Frost" struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December 1739 and September 1741, after a decade of relatively mild winters. The winters destroyed stored crops of potatoes and other staples, and the poor summers severely damaged harvests.[72][page needed] This resulted in the famine of 1740. An estimated 250,000 people (about one in eight of the population) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease.[73] The Irish government halted export of corn and kept the army in quarters but did little more.[73][74] Local gentry and charitable organisations provided relief but could do little to prevent the ensuing mortality.[73][74] In the aftermath of the famine, an increase in industrial production and a surge in trade brought a succession of construction booms. The population soared in the latter part of this century and the architectural legacy of Georgian Ireland was built. In 1782, Poynings' Law was repealed, giving Ireland legislative independence from Great Britain for the first time since 1495. The British government, however, still retained the right to nominate the government of Ireland without the consent of the Irish parliament. 1798 Rebellion Main article: Irish Rebellion of 1798 "The Camp on Vinegar Hill" - an illustration by George Cruikshank to accompany William Hamilton Maxwell's 1845 work History of the Irish rebellion in 1798 In 1798, members of the Protestant Dissenter tradition (mainly Presbyterian) made common cause with Roman Catholics in a republican rebellion inspired and led by the Society of United Irishmen, with the aim of creating an independent Ireland. Despite assistance from France the rebellion was put down by British and Irish government and yeomanry forces. The rebellion lasted from the 24th of May to the 12th of October that year and saw the establishment of the short lived Irish Republic (1798) in the province on Connacht. It saw numerous battles across the island with an estimated 30,000 dead with some listed below (for full list see main article.) Battle of Ballymore-Eustace Battle of Naas Battle of Vinegar Hill Battle of Clonard Battle of Prosperous Battle of Carlow Battle of Castlebar Union with Great Britain Main article: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland As a direct result of the 1798 rebellion in its aftermath in 1800, the British and Irish parliaments both passed Acts of Union that, with effect from 1 January 1801, merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create a United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.[75] The passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was ultimately achieved with substantial majorities, having failed on the first attempt in 1799. According to contemporary documents and historical analysis, this was achieved through a considerable degree of bribery, with funding provided by the British Secret Service Office, and the awarding of peerages, places and honours to secure votes.[75] Thus, the parliament in Ireland was abolished and replaced by a united parliament at Westminster in London, though resistance remained, as evidenced by Robert Emmet's failed Irish Rebellion of 1803. Aside from the development of the linen industry, Ireland was largely passed over by the Industrial Revolution, partly because it lacked coal and iron resources[76][77] and partly because of the impact of the sudden union with the structurally superior economy of England,[78] which saw Ireland as a source of agricultural produce and capital.[79][80] A depiction of the Great Famine from Our Boys in Ireland by Henry Willard French (1891) The Great Famine of 1845–1851 devastated Ireland, as in those years Ireland's population fell by one-third. More than one million people died from starvation and disease, with an additional million people emigrating during the famine, mostly to the United States and Canada.[81] In the century that followed, an economic depression caused by the famine resulted in a further million people emigrating.[82] By the end of the decade, half of all immigration to the United States was from Ireland. The period of civil unrest that followed until the end of the 19th century is referred to as the Land War. Mass emigration became deeply entrenched and the population continued to decline until the mid-20th century. Immediately prior to the famine the population was recorded as 8.2 million by the 1841 census.[83] The population has never returned to this level since.[84] The population continued to fall until 1961; County Leitrim was the final Irish county to record a population increase post-famine, in 2006. The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern Irish nationalism, primarily among the Roman Catholic population. The pre-eminent Irish political figure after the Union was Daniel O'Connell. He was elected as Member of Parliament for Ennis in a surprise result and despite being unable to take his seat as a Roman Catholic. O'Connell spearheaded a vigorous campaign that was taken up by the Prime Minister, the Irish-born soldier and statesman, the Duke of Wellington. Steering the Catholic Relief Bill through Parliament, aided by future prime minister Robert Peel, Wellington prevailed upon a reluctant George IV to sign the Bill and proclaim it into law. George's father had opposed the plan of the earlier Prime Minister, Pitt the Younger, to introduce such a bill following the Union of 1801, fearing Catholic Emancipation to be in conflict with the Act of Settlement 1701. Daniel O'Connell led a subsequent campaign, for the repeal of the Act of Union, which failed. Later in the century, Charles Stewart Parnell and others campaigned for autonomy within the Union, or "Home Rule". Unionists, especially those located in Ulster, were strongly opposed to Home Rule, which they thought would be dominated by Catholic interests.[85] After several attempts to pass a Home Rule bill through parliament, it looked certain that one would finally pass in 1914. To prevent this from happening, the Ulster Volunteers were formed in 1913 under the leadership of Edward Carson.[86] Their formation was followed in 1914 by the establishment of the Irish Volunteers, whose aim was to ensure that the Home Rule Bill was passed. The Act was passed but with the "temporary" exclusion of the six counties of Ulster, which later became Northern Ireland. Before it could be implemented, however, the Act was suspended for the duration of the First World War. The Irish Volunteers split into two groups. The majority, approximately 175,000 in number, under John Redmond, took the name National Volunteers and supported Irish involvement in the war. A minority, approximately 13,000, retained the Irish Volunteers' name and opposed Ireland's involvement in the war.[86] Sackville Street (now O'Connell Street), Dublin, after the 1916 Easter Rising The Easter Rising of 1916 was carried out by the latter group together with a smaller socialist militia, the Irish Citizen Army. The British response, executing fifteen leaders of the Rising over a period of ten days and imprisoning or interning more than a thousand people, turned the mood of the country in favour of the rebels. Support for Irish republicanism increased further due to the ongoing war in Europe, as well as the Conscription Crisis of 1918.[87] The pro-independence republican party, Sinn Féin, received overwhelming endorsement in the general election of 1918, and in 1919 proclaimed an Irish Republic, setting up its own parliament (Dáil Éireann) and government. Simultaneously the Volunteers, which became known as the Irish Republican Army (IRA), launched a three-year guerrilla war, which ended in a truce in July 1921 (although violence continued until June 1922, mostly in Northern Ireland).[87] Partition Main article: Partition of Ireland In December 1921, the Anglo-Irish Treaty was concluded between the British government and representatives of the Second Dáil. It gave Ireland complete independence in its home affairs and practical independence for foreign policy, but an opt-out clause allowed Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom, which it immediately exercised. Additionally, Members of the Free State Parliament were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the Constitution of the Irish Free State and make a statement of faithfulness to the king.[88] Disagreements over these provisions led to a split in the nationalist movement and a subsequent Irish Civil War between the new government of the Irish Free State and those opposed to the treaty, led by Éamon de Valera. The civil war officially ended in May 1923 when de Valera issued a cease-fire order.[89] Independence Main articles: History of the Republic of Ireland and Economy of the Republic of Ireland Annotated page from the Anglo-Irish Treaty that established the Irish Free State and independence for 26 out of 32 Irish counties During its first decade, the newly formed Irish Free State was governed by the victors of the civil war. When de Valera achieved power, he took advantage of the Statute of Westminster and political circumstances to build upon inroads to greater sovereignty made by the previous government. The oath was abolished and in 1937 a new constitution was adopted.[87] This completed a process of gradual separation from the British Empire that governments had pursued since independence. However, it was not until 1949 that the state was declared, officially, to be the Republic of Ireland. The state was neutral during World War II, but offered clandestine assistance to the Allies, particularly in the potential defence of Northern Ireland. Despite their country's neutrality, approximately 50,000[90] volunteers from independent Ireland joined the British forces during the war, four being awarded Victoria Crosses. The German intelligence was also active in Ireland.[91] Its operations ended in September 1941 when police made arrests based on surveillance carried out on the key diplomatic legations in Dublin. To the authorities, counterintelligence was a fundamental line of defence. With a regular army of only slightly over seven thousand men at the start of the war, and with limited supplies of modern weapons, the state would have had great difficulty in defending itself from invasion from either side in the conflict.[91][92] Large-scale emigration marked most of the post-WWII period (particularly during the 1950s and 1980s), but beginning in 1987 the economy improved, and the 1990s saw the beginning of substantial economic growth. This period of growth became known as the Celtic Tiger.[93] The Republic's real GDP grew by an average of 9.6% per annum between 1995 and 1999,[94] in which year the Republic joined the euro. In 2000, it was the sixth-richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita.[95] Historian R. F. Foster argues the cause was a combination of a new sense of initiative and the entry of American corporations. He concludes the chief factors were low taxation, pro-business regulatory policies, and a young, tech-savvy workforce. For many multinationals, the decision to do business in Ireland was made easier still by generous incentives from the Industrial Development Authority. In addition European Union membership was helpful, giving the country lucrative access to markets that it had previously reached only through the United Kingdom, and pumping huge subsidies and investment capital into the Irish economy.[96] Modernisation brought secularisation in its wake. The traditionally high levels of religiosity have sharply declined. Foster points to three factors: First, Irish feminism, largely imported from America with liberal stances on contraception, abortion and divorce, undermined the authority of bishops and priests. Second, the mishandling of the paedophile scandals humiliated the Church, whose bishops seemed less concerned with the victims and more concerned with covering up for errant priests. Third, prosperity brought hedonism and materialism that undercut the ideals of saintly poverty.[97] The financial crisis that began in 2008 dramatically ended this period of boom. GDP fell by 3% in 2008 and by 7.1% in 2009, the worst year since records began (although earnings by foreign-owned businesses continued to grow).[98] The state has since experienced deep recession, with unemployment, which doubled during 2009, remaining above 14% in 2012.[99] Northern Ireland Main articles: History of Northern Ireland and Economy of Northern Ireland Northern Ireland resulted from the division of the United Kingdom by the Government of Ireland Act 1920, and until 1972 was a self-governing jurisdiction within the United Kingdom with its own parliament and prime minister. Northern Ireland, as part of the United Kingdom, was not neutral during the Second World War, and Belfast suffered four bombing raids in 1941. Conscription was not extended to Northern Ireland, and roughly an equal number volunteered from Northern Ireland as volunteered from the Republic of Ireland. Edward Carson signing the Solemn League and Covenant in 1912, declaring opposition to Home Rule "using all means which may be found necessary" Although Northern Ireland was largely spared the strife of the civil war, in the decades that followed partition there were sporadic episodes of inter-communal violence. Nationalists, mainly Roman Catholic, wanted to unite Ireland as an independent republic, whereas unionists, mainly Protestant, wanted Northern Ireland to remain in the United Kingdom. The Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland voted largely along sectarian lines, meaning that the government of Northern Ireland (elected by "first-past-the-post" from 1929) was controlled by the Ulster Unionist Party. Over time, the minority Catholic community felt increasingly alienated with further disaffection fuelled by practices such as gerrymandering and discrimination in housing and employment.[100][101][102] In the late 1960s, nationalist grievances were aired publicly in mass civil rights protests, which were often confronted by loyalist counter-protests.[103] The government's reaction to confrontations was seen to be one-sided and heavy-handed in favour of unionists. Law and order broke down as unrest and inter-communal violence increased.[104] The Northern Ireland government requested the British Army to aid the police and protect the Irish Nationalist population. In 1969, the paramilitary Provisional IRA, which favoured the creation of a united Ireland, emerged from a split in the Irish Republican Army and began a campaign against what it called the "British occupation of the six counties".[citation needed] Other groups, both the unionist and nationalist participated in violence, and a period known as "the Troubles" began. More than 3,600 deaths resulted over the subsequent three decades of conflict.[105] Owing to the civil unrest during the Troubles, the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed direct rule. There were several unsuccessful attempts to end the Troubles politically, such as the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973. In 1998, following a ceasefire by the Provisional IRA and multi-party talks, the Good Friday Agreement was concluded as a treaty between the British and Irish governments, annexing the text agreed in the multi-party talks. The substance of the Agreement (formally referred to as the Belfast Agreement) was later endorsed by referendums in both parts of Ireland. The Agreement restored self-government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power-sharing in a regional Executive drawn from the major parties in a new Northern Ireland Assembly, with entrenched protections for the two main communities. The Executive is jointly headed by a First Minister and deputy First Minister drawn from the unionist and nationalist parties. Violence had decreased greatly after the Provisional IRA and loyalist ceasefires in 1994 and in 2005 the Provisional IRA announced the end of its armed campaign and an independent commission supervised its disarmament and that of other nationalist and unionist paramilitary organisations.[106] The Assembly and power-sharing Executive were suspended several times but were restored again in 2007. In that year the British government officially ended its military support of the police in Northern Ireland (Operation Banner) and began withdrawing troops. On 27 June 2012, Northern Ireland's deputy first minister and former IRA commander, Martin McGuinness, shook hands with Queen Elizabeth II in Belfast, symbolising reconciliation between the two sides.[107] Politics Political entities on the island of Ireland The island is divided between the Republic of Ireland, an independent state, and Northern Ireland, a constituent country of the United Kingdom. They share an open border and both are part of the Common Travel Area and as a consequence, there is free movement of people, goods, services and capital across the border. The Republic of Ireland is a member state of the European Union while the United Kingdom is a former member state, having both acceded to its precursor entity, the European Economic Community (EEC), in 1973 but the UK left the European Union in 2020 after a referendum on EU membership was held in 2016 which resulted in 51.9% of UK voters choosing to leave the bloc. Republic of Ireland Main article: Republic of Ireland Áras an Uachtaráin, the official residence of the President of Ireland The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy based on the Westminster system, with a written constitution and a popularly elected president whose role is mostly ceremonial. The Oireachtas is a bicameral parliament, composed of Dáil Éireann (the Dáil), a house of representatives, and Seanad Éireann (the Seanad), an upper house. The government is headed by a prime minister, the Taoiseach, who is appointed by the president on the nomination of the Dáil. Its capital is Dublin. The Republic of Ireland today ranks among the wealthiest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita[108] and in 2015 was ranked the sixth most developed nation in the world by the United Nations' Human Development Index.[109] A period of rapid economic expansion from 1995 onwards became known as the Celtic Tiger period, was brought to an end in 2008 with an unprecedented financial crisis and an economic depression in 2009. Northern Ireland Main article: Northern Ireland Parliament Buildings, in Stormont Estate, seat of the Northern Ireland Assembly Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom with a local executive and assembly which exercise devolved powers. The executive is jointly headed by the first and deputy first minister, with the ministries being allocated in proportion to each party's representation in the assembly. Its capital is Belfast. Ultimately political power is held by the UK government, from which Northern Ireland has gone through intermittent periods of direct rule during which devolved powers have been suspended. Northern Ireland elects 18 of the UK House of Commons' 650 MPs. The Northern Ireland Secretary is a cabinet-level post in the British government. Along with England and Wales and with Scotland, Northern Ireland forms one of the three separate legal jurisdictions of the UK, all of which share the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom as their court of final appeal. All-island institutions As part of the Good Friday Agreement, the British and Irish governments agreed on the creation of all-island institutions and areas of cooperation. The North/South Ministerial Council is an institution through which ministers from the Government of Ireland and the Northern Ireland Executive agree all-island policies. At least six of these policy areas must have an associated all-island "implementation body," and at least six others must be implemented separately in each jurisdiction. The implementation bodies are: Waterways Ireland, the Food Safety Promotion Board, InterTradeIreland, the Special European Union Programmes Body, the North/South Language Body and the Foyle, Carlingford and Irish Lights Commission. The British–Irish Intergovernmental Conference provides for co-operation between the Government of Ireland and the Government of the United Kingdom on all matters of mutual interest, especially Northern Ireland. In light of the Republic's particular interest in the governance of Northern Ireland, "regular and frequent" meetings co-chaired by the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs and the British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, dealing with non-devolved matters to do with Northern Ireland and non-devolved all-Ireland issues, are required to take place under the establishing treaty. The North/South Inter-Parliamentary Association is a joint parliamentary forum for the island of Ireland. It has no formal powers but operates as a forum for discussing matters of common concern between the respective legislatures. Geography Main article: Geography of Ireland Physical features of Ireland Ireland is located in the north-west of Europe, between latitudes 51° and 56° N, and longitudes 11° and 5° W. It is separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and the North Channel, which has a width of 23 kilometres (14 mi)[110] at its narrowest point. To the west is the northern Atlantic Ocean and to the south is the Celtic Sea, which lies between Ireland and Brittany, in France. Ireland has a total area of 84,421 km2 (32,595 sq mi),[1][2][111] of which the Republic of Ireland occupies 83 percent.[112] Ireland and Great Britain, together with many nearby smaller islands, are known collectively as the British Isles.[113] As the term British Isles can be controversial in relation to Ireland, the alternate term Britain and Ireland is sometimes used as a neutral term for the islands.[114] A ring of coastal mountains surrounds low plains at the centre of the island. The highest of these is Carrauntoohil (Irish: Corrán Tuathail) in County Kerry, which rises to 1,039 m (3,409 ft) above sea level.[115] The most arable land lies in the province of Leinster.[116] Western areas are mainly mountainous and rocky with green panoramic vistas. River Shannon, the island's longest river at 360.5 km (224 mi) long, rises in County Cavan in the north-west and flows through Limerick in the midwest.[115][117] Geology Main article: Geology of Ireland Topography of Ireland The island consists of varied geological provinces. In the west, around County Galway and County Donegal, is a medium- to high-grade metamorphic and igneous complex of Caledonide affinity, similar to the Scottish Highlands. Across southeast Ulster and extending southwest to Longford and south to Navan is a province of Ordovician and Silurian rocks, with similarities to the Southern Uplands province of Scotland. Further south, along the County Wexford coastline, is an area of granite intrusives into more Ordovician and Silurian rocks, like that found in Wales.[118][119] In the southwest, around Bantry Bay and the mountains of MacGillycuddy's Reeks, is an area of substantially deformed, lightly metamorphosed Devonian-aged rocks.[120] This partial ring of "hard rock" geology is covered by a blanket of Carboniferous limestone over the centre of the country, giving rise to a comparatively fertile and lush landscape. The west-coast district of the Burren around Lisdoonvarna has well-developed karst features.[121] Significant stratiform lead-zinc mineralisation is found in the limestones around Silvermines and Tynagh. Hydrocarbon exploration is ongoing following the first major find at the Kinsale Head gas field off Cork in the mid-1970s.[122][123] In 1999, economically significant finds of natural gas were made in the Corrib Gas Field off the County Mayo coast. This has increased activity off the west coast in parallel with the "West of Shetland" step-out development from the North Sea hydrocarbon province. In 2000, the Helvick oil field was discovered, which was estimated to contain over 28 million barrels (4,500,000 m3) of oil.[124] Climate Main article: Climate of Ireland The island's lush vegetation, a product of its mild climate and frequent rainfall, earns it the sobriquet the Emerald Isle. Overall, Ireland has a mild but changeable oceanic climate with few extremes. The climate is typically insular and temperate, avoiding the extremes in temperature of many other areas in the world at similar latitudes.[125] This is a result of the moist winds which ordinarily prevail from the southwestern Atlantic. Precipitation falls throughout the year but is light overall, particularly in the east. The west tends to be wetter on average and prone to Atlantic storms, especially in the late autumn and winter months. These occasionally bring destructive winds and higher total rainfall to these areas, as well as sometimes snow and hail. The regions of north County Galway and east County Mayo have the highest incidents of recorded lightning annually for the island, with lightning occurring approximately five to ten days per year in these areas.[126] Munster, in the south, records the least snow whereas Ulster, in the north, records the most. Inland areas are warmer in summer and colder in winter. Usually around 40 days of the year are below freezing 0 °C (32 °F) at inland weather stations, compared to 10 days at coastal stations. Ireland is sometimes affected by heat waves, most recently in 1995, 2003, 2006, 2013 and 2018. In common with the rest of Europe, Ireland experienced unusually cold weather during the winter of 2010–11. Temperatures fell as low as −17.2 °C (1 °F) in County Mayo on 20 December[127] and up to a metre (3 ft) of snow fell in mountainous areas. Climate data for Ireland Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 18.5 (65.3) 18.1 (64.6) 23.6 (74.5) 25.8 (78.4) 28.4 (83.1) 33.3 (91.9) 33.0 (91.4) 32.1 (89.8) 29.1 (84.4) 25.2 (77.4) 20.1 (68.2) 18.1 (64.6) 33.3 (91.9) Record low °C (°F) −19.1 (−2.4) −17.8 (0.0) −17.2 (1.0) −7.7 (18.1) −5.6 (21.9) −3.3 (26.1) −0.3 (31.5) −2.7 (27.1) −3 (27) −8.3 (17.1) −11.5 (11.3) −17.5 (0.5) −19.1 (−2.4) Source 1: Met Éireann[128] Source 2: The Irish Times (November record high)[129] Flora and fauna Main articles: Fauna of Ireland, Flora of Ireland, and Trees of Britain and Ireland The red fox is common in Ireland. Two red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Gubbeen, County Cork Unlike Great Britain which had a land bridge with mainland Europe, Ireland only had an ice bridge ending around 14,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age and as a result, it has fewer land animal and plant species than Great Britain or mainland Europe.[19][20] There are 55 mammal species in Ireland, and of them, only 26 land mammal species are considered native to Ireland.[130] Some species, such as, the red fox, hedgehog and badger, are very common, whereas others, like the Irish hare, red deer and pine marten are less so. Aquatic wildlife, such as species of sea turtle, shark, seal, whale, and dolphin, are common off the coast. About 400 species of birds have been recorded in Ireland. Many of these are migratory, including the barn swallow. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Killarney National Park Several different habitat types are found in Ireland, including farmland, open woodland, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, conifer plantations, peat bogs and a variety of coastal habitats. However, agriculture drives current land use patterns in Ireland, limiting natural habitat preserves,[131] particularly for larger wild mammals with greater territorial needs. With no large apex predators in Ireland other than humans and dogs, such populations of animals as semi-wild deer that cannot be controlled by smaller predators, such as the fox, are controlled by annual culling. There are no snakes in Ireland, and only one species of reptile (the common lizard) is native to the island. Extinct species include the Irish elk, the great auk, brown bear and the wolf. Some previously extinct birds, such as the golden eagle, have been reintroduced after decades of extirpation.[132] Ireland is now one of the least forested countries in Europe.[133][134] Until the end of the Middle Ages, Ireland was heavily forested. Native species include deciduous trees such as oak, ash, hazel, birch, alder, willow, aspen, rowan and hawthorn, as well as evergreen trees such Scots pine, yew, holly and strawberry trees.[135] Only about 10% of Ireland today is woodland;[12] most of this is non-native conifer plantations, and only 2% is native woodland.[13][14] The average woodland cover of European countries is over 33%.[12] In the Republic, about 389,356 hectares (3,893.56 km2) is owned by the state, mainly by the forestry service Coillte.[12] Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the island, in particular in the Killarney National Park. Furze (Ulex europaeus) Much of the land is now covered with pasture and there are many species of wild-flower. Gorse (Ulex europaeus), a wild furze, is commonly found growing in the uplands and ferns are plentiful in the more moist regions, especially in the western parts. It is home to hundreds of plant species, some of them unique to the island, and has been "invaded" by some grasses, such as Spartina anglica.[136] The algal and seaweed flora is that of the cold-temperate variety. The total number of species is 574[137] The island has been invaded by some algae, some of which are now well established.[138] Because of its mild climate, many species, including sub-tropical species such as palm trees, are grown in Ireland. Phytogeographically, Ireland belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The island can be subdivided into two ecoregions: the Celtic broadleaf forests and North Atlantic moist mixed forests. Impact of agriculture Silage harvesting in Clonard, County Meath The long history of agricultural production, coupled with modern intensive agricultural methods such as pesticide and fertiliser use and runoff from contaminants into streams, rivers and lakes, has placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland.[139][140] A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species. Hedgerows, however, traditionally used for maintaining and demarcating land boundaries, act as a refuge for native wild flora. This ecosystem stretches across the countryside and acts as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island. Subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy, which supported agricultural practices that preserved hedgerow environments, are undergoing reforms. The Common Agricultural Policy had in the past subsidised potentially destructive agricultural practices, for example by emphasising production without placing limits on indiscriminate use of fertilisers and pesticides; but reforms have gradually decoupled subsidies from production levels and introduced environmental and other requirements.[141] 32% of Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions are correlated to agriculture.[142] Forested areas typically consist of monoculture plantations of non-native species, which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting native species of invertebrates. Natural areas require fencing to prevent over-grazing by deer and sheep that roam over uncultivated areas. Grazing in this manner is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country.[143] Demographics Main articles: Irish people, Demographics of the Republic of Ireland, and Demographics of Northern Ireland Proportion of respondents to the Ireland census 2011 or the Northern Ireland census 2011 who stated they were Catholic. Areas in which Catholics are in the majority are blue. Areas in which Catholics are in a minority are red. The population of Ireland is just over 7 million, of which approximately 5.1 million reside in the Republic of Ireland and 1.9 million reside in Northern Ireland.[11] People have lived in Ireland for over 9,000 years. Early historical and genealogical records note the existence of major groups such as the Cruthin, Corcu Loígde, Dál Riata, Dáirine, Deirgtine, Delbhna, Érainn, Laigin, Ulaid. Later major groups included the Connachta, Ciannachta, Eóganachta. Smaller groups included the aithechthúatha (see Attacotti), Cálraighe, Cíarraige, Conmaicne, Dartraighe, Déisi, Éile, Fir Bolg, Fortuatha, Gailenga, Gamanraige, Mairtine, Múscraige, Partraige, Soghain, Uaithni, Uí Maine, Uí Liatháin. Many survived into late medieval times, others vanished as they became politically unimportant. Over the past 1,200 years, Vikings, Normans, Welsh, Flemings, Scots, English, Africans and Eastern Europeans have all added to the population and have had significant influences on Irish culture. The population of Ireland rose rapidly from the 16th century until the mid-19th century, interrupted briefly by the Famine of 1740–41, which killed roughly two-fifths of the island's population. The population rebounded and multiplied over the next century, but the Great Famine of the 1840s caused one million deaths and forced over one million more to emigrate in its immediate wake. Over the following century, the population was reduced by over half, at a time when the general trend in European countries was for populations to rise by an average of three-fold. Ireland's largest religious group is Christianity. The largest denomination is Roman Catholicism, representing over 73% of the island (and about 87% of the Republic of Ireland). Most of the rest of the population adhere to one of the various Protestant denominations (about 48% of Northern Ireland).[144] The largest is the Anglican Church of Ireland. The Muslim community is growing in Ireland, mostly through increased immigration, with a 50% increase in the republic between the 2006 and 2011 census.[145] The island has a small Jewish community. About 4% of the Republic's population and about 14% of the Northern Ireland population[144] describe themselves as of no religion. In a 2010 survey conducted on behalf of the Irish Times, 32% of respondents said they went to a religious service more than once per week. Divisions and settlements Further information: Provinces of Ireland, Counties of Ireland, and City status in Ireland Ireland is located in island of Ireland Leinster Leinster Connacht Connacht Ulster Ulster Munster Munster Provinces of Ireland Traditionally, Ireland is subdivided into four provinces: Connacht (west), Leinster (east), Munster (south), and Ulster (north). In a system that developed between the 13th and 17th centuries,[146] Ireland has 32 traditional counties. Twenty-six of these counties are in the Republic of Ireland, and six are in Northern Ireland. The six counties that constitute Northern Ireland are all in the province of Ulster (which has nine counties in total). As such, Ulster is often used as a synonym for Northern Ireland, although the two are not coterminous. In the Republic of Ireland, counties form the basis of the system of local government. Counties Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, Waterford and Tipperary have been broken up into smaller administrative areas. However, they are still treated as counties for cultural and some official purposes, for example, postal addresses and by the Ordnance Survey Ireland. Counties in Northern Ireland are no longer used for local governmental purposes,[147] but, as in the Republic, their traditional boundaries are still used for informal purposes such as sports leagues and in cultural or tourism contexts.[148] City status in Ireland is decided by legislative or royal charter. Dublin, with over one million residents in the Greater Dublin Area, is the largest city on the island. Belfast, with 579,726 residents, is the largest city in Northern Ireland. City status does not directly equate with population size. For example, Armagh, with 14,590 is the seat of the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Primate of All Ireland and was re-granted city status by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994 (having lost that status in local government reforms of 1840). In the Republic of Ireland, Kilkenny, the seat of the Butler dynasty, while no longer a city for administrative purposes (since the 2001 Local Government Act), is entitled by law to continue to use the description. Cities and towns by population[149][150] Dublin Belfast # Settlement City Popu lation Urban popu lation Metro popu lation Cork Limerick 1 Dublin 592,713 1,263,219 1,458,154 2 Belfast 293,298 639,000 3 Cork 222,333 305,222 4 Limerick 102,287 5 Galway 85,910 6 Derry 85,279 7 Greater Craigavon 72,301 8 Newtownabbey[c] 67,599 9 Bangor[c] 64,596 10 Waterford 60,079 Further information: List of metropolitan areas in Ireland Migration The population of Ireland collapsed dramatically during the second half of the 19th century. A population of over eight million in 1841 was reduced to slightly over four million by 1921. In part, the fall in population was caused by death from the Great Famine of 1845 to 1852, which took roughly one million lives. The remaining decline of around three million was due to the entrenched culture of emigration caused by the dire economic state of the country, lasting until the late 20th century. Emigration from Ireland in the 19th century contributed to the populations of England, the United States, Canada and Australia, in all of which a large Irish diaspora lives. As of 2006, 4.3 million Canadians, or 14% of the population, were of Irish descent,[151] while around one-third of the Australian population had an element of Irish descent.[152] As of 2013, there were 40 million Irish-Americans[153] and 33 million Americans who claimed Irish ancestry.[154] With growing prosperity since the last decade of the 20th century, Ireland became a destination for immigrants. Since the European Union expanded to include Poland in 2004, Polish people have comprised the largest number of immigrants (over 150,000)[155] from Central Europe. There has also been significant immigration from Lithuania, Czech Republic and Latvia.[156] The Republic of Ireland in particular has seen large-scale immigration, with 420,000 foreign nationals as of 2006, about 10% of the population.[157] Nearly a quarter of births (24 percent) in 2009 were to mothers born outside of Ireland.[158] Up to 50,000 eastern and central European migrant workers left Ireland in response to the Irish financial crisis.[159] Languages Main article: Languages of Ireland Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Ireland census in 2011 or the Northern Ireland census in 2011 The two official languages of the Republic of Ireland are Irish and English. Each language has produced noteworthy literature. Irish, though now only the language of a minority, was the vernacular of the Irish people for thousands of years and was possibly introduced during the Iron Age. It began to be written down after Christianisation in the 5th century and spread to Scotland and the Isle of Man, where it evolved into the Scottish Gaelic and Manx languages, respectively. The Irish language has a vast treasury of written texts from many centuries and is divided by linguists into Old Irish from the 6th to 10th century, Middle Irish from the 10th to 13th century, Early Modern Irish until the 17th century, and the Modern Irish spoken today. It remained the dominant language of Ireland for most of those periods, having influences from Latin, Old Norse, French and English. It declined under British rule but remained the majority tongue until the early 19th century, and since then has been a minority language. The Gaelic Revival of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had a long-term influence. Irish is taught in mainstream Irish schools as a compulsory subject, but teaching methods have been criticised for their ineffectiveness, with most students showing little evidence of fluency even after fourteen years of instruction.[160] There is now a growing population of urban Irish speakers in both the Republic and Northern Ireland, especially in Dublin[161][162] and Belfast,[163] with the children of such Irish speakers sometimes attending Irish-medium schools (Gaelscoil). It has been argued that they tend to be more highly educated than monolingual English speakers.[164] Recent research suggests that urban Irish is developing in a direction of its own, both in pronunciation and grammar.[165] Traditional rural Irish-speaking areas, known collectively as the Gaeltacht, are in linguistic decline. The main Gaeltacht areas are in the west, south-west and north-west, in Galway, Mayo, Donegal, western Cork and Kerry with smaller Gaeltacht areas near Dungarvan in Waterford and in Meath.[166] English in Ireland was first introduced during the Norman invasion. It was spoken by a few peasants and merchants brought over from England and was largely replaced by Irish before the Tudor conquest of Ireland. It was introduced as the official language during the Tudor and Cromwellian conquests. The Ulster plantations gave it a permanent foothold in Ulster, and it remained the official and upper-class language elsewhere, the Irish-speaking chieftains and nobility having been deposed. Language shift during the 19th century replaced Irish with English as the first language for a vast majority of the population.[167] Fewer than 2% of the population of the Republic of Ireland today speak Irish on a daily basis, and under 10% regularly, outside of the education system[168] and 38% of those over 15 years are classified as "Irish speakers". In Northern Ireland, English is the de facto official language, but official recognition is afforded to Irish, including specific protective measures under Part III of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. A lesser status (including recognition under Part II of the Charter) is given to Ulster Scots dialects, which are spoken by roughly 2% of Northern Ireland residents, and also spoken by some in the Republic of Ireland.[169] Since the 1960s with the increase in immigration, many more languages have been introduced, particularly deriving from Asia and Eastern Europe. Also native to Ireland are Shelta, the language of the nomadic Irish Travellers,[170] Irish Sign Language, and Northern Ireland Sign Language. Culture Main articles: Culture of Ireland and Culture of Northern Ireland Tall stone cross, with intricate carved patterns, protected by metal railings surrounded by short cut grass. Trees are to either side, cows in open countryside are in the middle distance. Ardboe High Cross, County Tyrone Ireland's culture comprises elements of the culture of ancient peoples, later immigrant and broadcast cultural influences (chiefly Gaelic culture, Anglicisation, Americanisation and aspects of broader European culture). In broad terms, Ireland is regarded as one of the Celtic nations of Europe, alongside Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Isle of Man and Brittany. This combination of cultural influences is visible in the intricate designs termed Irish interlace or Celtic knotwork. These can be seen in the ornamentation of medieval religious and secular works. The style is still popular today in jewellery and graphic art,[171] as is the distinctive style of traditional Irish music and dance, and has become indicative of modern "Celtic" culture in general. Religion has played a significant role in the cultural life of the island since ancient times (and since the 17th century plantations, has been the focus of political identity and divisions on the island). Ireland's pre-Christian heritage fused with the Celtic Church following the missions of Saint Patrick in the fifth century. The Hiberno-Scottish missions, begun by the Irish monk Saint Columba, spread the Irish vision of Christianity to pagan England and the Frankish Empire. These missions brought written language to an illiterate population of Europe during the Dark Ages that followed the fall of Rome, earning Ireland the sobriquet, "the island of saints and scholars". Since the 20th century Irish pubs worldwide have become outposts of Irish culture, especially those with a full range of cultural and gastronomic offerings. Arts Illuminated page from Book of Kells Literature Main article: Literature of Ireland Ireland has made a substantial contribution to world literature in all its branches, both in Irish and English. Poetry in Irish is among the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe, with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century.[citation needed] Irish remained the dominant literary language down to the nineteenth century, despite the spread of English from the seventeenth century on. Prominent names from the medieval period and later include Gofraidh Fionn Ó Dálaigh (fourteenth century), Dáibhí Ó Bruadair (seventeenth century) and Aogán Ó Rathaille (eighteenth century). Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill (c. 1743 – c. 1800) was an outstanding poet in the oral tradition. The latter part of the nineteenth century saw a rapid replacement of Irish by English. [citation needed] By 1900, however, cultural nationalists had begun the Gaelic revival, which saw the beginnings of modern literature in Irish. This was to produce a number of notable writers, including Máirtín Ó Cadhain, Máire Mhac an tSaoi and others. Irish-language publishers such as Coiscéim and Cló Iar-Chonnacht continue to produce scores of titles every year. In English, Jonathan Swift, often called the foremost satirist in the English language, gained fame for works such as Gulliver's Travels and A Modest Proposal. Other notable 18th-century writers of Irish origin included Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan, though they spent most of their lives in England. The Anglo-Irish novel came to the fore in the nineteenth century, featuring such writers as Charles Kickham, William Carleton, and (in collaboration) Edith Somerville and Violet Florence Martin. The playwright and poet Oscar Wilde, noted for his epigrams, was born in Ireland. In the 20th century, Ireland produced four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature: George Bernard Shaw, William Butler Yeats, Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney. Although not a Nobel Prize winner, James Joyce is widely considered to be one of the most significant writers of the 20th century. Joyce's 1922 novel Ulysses is considered one of the most important works of Modernist literature and his life is celebrated annually on 16 June in Dublin as "Bloomsday".[172] A comparable writer in Irish is Máirtín Ó Cadhain, whose 1949 novel Cré na Cille is regarded as a modernist masterpiece and has been translated into several languages. Modern Irish literature is often connected with its rural heritage[173] through English-language writers such as John McGahern and Seamus Heaney and Irish-language writers such as Máirtín Ó Direáin and others from the Gaeltacht. James Joyce, one of the most significant writers of the 20th century Music and dance Main articles: Music of Ireland and Irish dance Music has been in evidence in Ireland since prehistoric times.[174] Although in the early Middle Ages the church was "quite unlike its counterpart in continental Europe",[175] there was a considerable interchange between monastic settlements in Ireland and the rest of Europe that contributed to what is known as Gregorian chant. Outside religious establishments, musical genres in early Gaelic Ireland are referred to as a triad of weeping music (goltraige), laughing music (geantraige) and sleeping music (suantraige).[176] Vocal and instrumental music (e.g. for the harp, pipes, and various string instruments) was transmitted orally, but the Irish harp, in particular, was of such significance that it became Ireland's national symbol. Classical music following European models first developed in urban areas, in establishments of Anglo-Irish rule such as Dublin Castle, St Patrick's Cathedral and Christ Church as well as the country houses of the Anglo-Irish ascendancy, with the first performance of Handel's Messiah (1742) being among the highlights of the baroque era. In the 19th century, public concerts provided access to classical music to all classes of society. Yet, for political and financial reasons Ireland has been too small to provide a living to many musicians, so the names of the better-known Irish composers of this time belong to emigrants. Irish traditional music and dance have seen a surge in popularity and global coverage since the 1960s. In the middle years of the 20th century, as Irish society was modernising, traditional music had fallen out of favour, especially in urban areas.[177] However during the 1960s, there was a revival of interest in Irish traditional music led by groups such as the Dubliners, the Chieftains, the Wolfe Tones, the Clancy Brothers, Sweeney's Men and individuals like Seán Ó Riada and Christy Moore. Groups and musicians including Horslips, Van Morrison and Thin Lizzy incorporated elements of Irish traditional music into contemporary rock music and, during the 1970s and 1980s, the distinction between traditional and rock musicians became blurred, with many individuals regularly crossing over between these styles of playing. This trend can be seen more recently in the work of artists like Enya, the Saw Doctors, the Corrs, Sinéad O'Connor, Clannad, the Cranberries and the Pogues among others. Art Main articles: Art of Ireland and Architecture of Ireland The earliest known Irish graphic art and sculpture are Neolithic carvings found at sites such as Newgrange[178] and is traced through Bronze Age artefacts and the religious carvings and illuminated manuscripts of the medieval period. During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, a strong tradition of painting emerged, including such figures as John Butler Yeats, William Orpen, Jack Yeats and Louis le Brocquy. Contemporary Irish visual artists of note include Sean Scully, Kevin Abosch, and Alice Maher. Drama and theatre Main article: Irish theatre The Republic of Ireland's national theatre is the Abbey Theatre, which was founded in 1904, and the national Irish-language theatre is An Taibhdhearc, which was established in 1928 in Galway.[179][180] Playwrights such as Seán O'Casey, Brian Friel, Sebastian Barry, Conor McPherson and Billy Roche are internationally renowned.[181] Science Robert Boyle formulated Boyle's Law. The Irish philosopher and theologian Johannes Scotus Eriugena was considered one of the leading intellectuals of the early Middle Ages. Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, an Irish explorer, was one of the principal figures of Antarctic exploration. He, along with his expedition, made the first ascent of Mount Erebus and the discovery of the approximate location of the South Magnetic Pole. Robert Boyle was a 17th-century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor and early gentleman scientist. He is largely regarded as one of the founders of modern chemistry and is best known for the formulation of Boyle's law.[182] 19th-century physicist, John Tyndall, discovered the Tyndall effect. Father Nicholas Joseph Callan, professor of natural philosophy in Maynooth College, is best known for his invention of the induction coil, transformer and he discovered an early method of galvanisation in the 19th century. Other notable Irish physicists include Ernest Walton, winner of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics. With Sir John Douglas Cockcroft, he was the first to split the nucleus of the atom by artificial means and made contributions to the development of a new theory of wave equation.[183] William Thomson, or Lord Kelvin, is the person whom the absolute temperature unit, the kelvin, is named after. Sir Joseph Larmor, a physicist and mathematician, made innovations in the understanding of electricity, dynamics, thermodynamics and the electron theory of matter. His most influential work was Aether and Matter, a book on theoretical physics published in 1900.[184] George Johnstone Stoney introduced the term electron in 1891. John Stewart Bell was the originator of Bell's Theorem and a paper concerning the discovery of the Bell-Jackiw-Adler anomaly and was nominated for a Nobel prize.[185] The astronomer Jocelyn Bell Burnell, from Lurgan, County Armagh, discovered pulsars in 1967. Notable mathematicians include Sir William Rowan Hamilton, famous for work in classical mechanics and the invention of quaternions. Francis Ysidro Edgeworth's contribution, the Edgeworth Box. remains influential in neo-classical microeconomic theory to this day; while Richard Cantillon inspired Adam Smith, among others. John B. Cosgrave was a specialist in number theory and discovered a 2000-digit prime number in 1999 and a record composite Fermat number in 2003. John Lighton Synge made progress in different fields of science, including mechanics and geometrical methods in general relativity. He had mathematician John Nash as one of his students. Kathleen Lonsdale, born in Ireland and most known for her work with crystallography, became the first female president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.[186] Ireland has nine universities, seven in the Republic of Ireland and two in Northern Ireland, including Trinity College Dublin and the University College Dublin, as well as numerous third-level colleges and institutes and a branch of the Open University, the Open University in Ireland. Ireland was ranked 22nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 12th in 2019.[187][188] Sports Main article: Sport in Ireland See also: List of Irish sports people Gaelic football is the most popular sport in Ireland in terms of match attendance and community involvement, with about 2,600 clubs on the island. In 2003 it represented 34% of total sports attendances at events in Ireland and abroad, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%.[189] The All-Ireland Football Final is the most watched event in the sporting calendar.[190] Soccer is the most widely played team game on the island and the most popular in Northern Ireland.[189][191] Other sporting activities with the highest levels of playing participation include swimming, golf, aerobics, cycling, and billiards/snooker.[192] Many other sports are also played and followed, including boxing, cricket, fishing, greyhound racing, handball, hockey, horse racing, motor sport, show jumping and tennis. The island fields a single international team in most sports. One notable exception to this is association football, although both associations continued to field international teams under the name "Ireland" until the 1950s. The sport is also the most notable exception where the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland field separate international teams. Northern Ireland has produced two World Snooker Champions. Field sports Main articles: Gaelic games, Rugby union in Ireland, Rugby league in Ireland, Association football in the Republic of Ireland, and Association football in Northern Ireland Tyrone v Kerry in the 2005 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final Gaelic football, hurling and Gaelic handball are the best-known Irish traditional sports, collectively known as Gaelic games. Gaelic games are governed by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), with the exception of women's Gaelic football and camogie (women's variant of hurling), which are governed by separate organisations. The headquarters of the GAA (and the main stadium) is located at [193] Croke Park in north Dublin and has a capacity of 82,500. Many major GAA games are played there, including the semi-finals and finals of the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship. During the redevelopment of the Lansdowne Road stadium in 2007–2010, international rugby and soccer were played there.[194] All GAA players, even at the highest level, are amateurs, receiving no wages, although they are permitted to receive a limited amount of sport-related income from commercial sponsorship. The Irish Football Association (IFA) was originally the governing body for soccer across the island. The game has been played in an organised fashion in Ireland since the 1870s, with Cliftonville F.C. in Belfast being Ireland's oldest club. It was most popular, especially in its first decades, around Belfast and in Ulster. However, some clubs based outside Belfast thought that the IFA largely favoured Ulster-based clubs in such matters as selection for the national team. In 1921, following an incident in which, despite an earlier promise, the IFA moved an Irish Cup semi-final replay from Dublin to Belfast,[195] Dublin-based clubs broke away to form the Football Association of the Irish Free State. Today the southern association is known as the Football Association of Ireland (FAI). Despite being initially blacklisted by the Home Nations' associations, the FAI was recognised by FIFA in 1923 and organised its first international fixture in 1926 (against Italy). However, both the IFA and FAI continued to select their teams from the whole of Ireland, with some players earning international caps for matches with both teams. Both also referred to their respective teams as Ireland. Paul O'Connell reaching for the ball during a line out against Argentina in 2007 In 1950, FIFA directed the associations only to select players from within their respective territories and, in 1953, directed that the FAI's team be known only as "Republic of Ireland" and that the IFA's team be known as "Northern Ireland" (with certain exceptions). Northern Ireland qualified for the World Cup finals in 1958 (reaching the quarter-finals), 1982 and 1986 and the European Championship in 2016. The Republic qualified for the World Cup finals in 1990 (reaching the quarter-finals), 1994, 2002 and the European Championship in 1988, 2012 and 2016. Across Ireland, there is significant interest in the English and, to a lesser extent, Scottish soccer leagues. Ireland fields a single national rugby team and a single association, the Irish Rugby Football Union, governs the sport across the island. The Irish rugby team have played in every Rugby World Cup, making the quarter-finals in eight of them.[196] Ireland also hosted games during the 1991 and the 1999 Rugby World Cups (including a quarter-final). There are four professional Irish teams; all four play in the Pro14 and at least three compete for the Heineken Cup. Irish rugby has become increasingly competitive at both the international and provincial levels since the sport went professional in 1994. During that time, Ulster (1999),[197] Munster (2006[198] and 2008)[197] and Leinster (2009, 2011 and 2012)[197] have won the Heineken Cup. In addition to this, the Irish International side has had increased success in the Six Nations Championship against the other European elite sides. This success, including Triple Crowns in 2004, 2006 and 2007, culminated with a clean sweep of victories, known as a Grand Slam, in 2009 and 2018.[199] Boxing Main article: Boxing in Ireland Amateur boxing on the island of Ireland is governed by the Irish Athletic Boxing Association. Ireland has won more medals in boxing than in any other Olympic sport. Michael Carruth won a gold medal and Wayne McCullough won a silver medal in the Barcelona Olympic Games. In 2008 Kenneth Egan won a silver medal in the Beijing Games.[200] Paddy Barnes secured bronze in those games and gold in the 2010 European Amateur Boxing Championships (where Ireland came 2nd in the overall medal table) and 2010 Commonwealth Games. Katie Taylor has won gold in every European and World championship since 2005. In August 2012 at the Olympic Games in London, Taylor created history by becoming the first Irish woman to win a gold medal in boxing in the 60 kg lightweight.[201] More recently, Kellie Harrington won a gold medal at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.[202] Other sports Main articles: Horse racing in Ireland, Athletics in Ireland, and Golf in Ireland Horse racing in Sligo Horse racing and greyhound racing are both popular in Ireland. There are frequent horse race meetings and greyhound stadiums are well-attended. The island is noted for the breeding and training of race horses and is also a large exporter of racing dogs.[203] The horse racing sector is largely concentrated in the County Kildare.[204] Irish athletics is an all-Ireland sport governed by Athletics Ireland. Sonia O'Sullivan won two medals at 5,000 metres on the track; gold at the 1995 World Championships and silver at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Gillian O'Sullivan won silver in the 20k walk at the 2003 World Championships, while sprint hurdler Derval O'Rourke won gold at the 2006 World Indoor Championship in Moscow. Olive Loughnane won a silver medal in the 20k walk at the World Athletics Championships in Berlin in 2009.[205] Golf is very popular, and golf tourism is a major industry attracting more than 240,000 golfing visitors annually.[206] The 2006 Ryder Cup was held at The K Club in County Kildare.[207] Pádraig Harrington became the first Irishman since Fred Daly in 1947 to win the British Open at Carnoustie in July 2007.[208] He successfully defended his title in July 2008[209] before going on to win the PGA Championship in August.[210] Harrington became the first European to win the PGA Championship in 78 years and was the first winner from Ireland. Three golfers from Northern Ireland have been particularly successful. In 2010, Graeme McDowell became the first Irish golfer to win the U.S. Open, and the first European to win that tournament since 1970. Rory McIlroy, at the age of 22, won the 2011 U.S. Open, while Darren Clarke's latest victory was the 2011 Open Championship at Royal St. George's. In August 2012, McIlroy won his 2nd major championship by winning the USPGA Championship by a record margin of 8 shots. Recreation The west coast of Ireland, Lahinch and Donegal Bay in particular, have popular surfing beaches, being fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean. Donegal Bay is shaped like a funnel and catches west/south-west Atlantic winds, creating good surf, especially in winter. Since just before the year 2010, Bundoran has hosted European championship surfing. Scuba diving is increasingly popular in Ireland with clear waters and large populations of sea life, particularly along the western seaboard. There are also many shipwrecks along the coast of Ireland, with some of the best wreck dives being in Malin Head and off the County Cork coast.[211] With thousands of lakes, over 14,000 kilometres (8,700 mi) of fish-bearing rivers and over 7,500 kilometres (4,660 mi) of coastline, Ireland is a popular angling destination. The temperate Irish climate is suited to sport angling. While salmon and trout fishing remain popular with anglers, salmon fishing, in particular, received a boost in 2006 with the closing of the salmon driftnet fishery. Coarse fishing continues to increase its profile. Sea angling is developed with many beaches mapped and signposted,[212] and the range of sea angling species is around 80.[213] Food and drink Main article: Irish cuisine Gubbeen cheese, an example of the resurgence in Irish cheese making Food and cuisine in Ireland take their influence from the crops grown and animals farmed in the island's temperate climate and from the social and political circumstances of Irish history. For example, whilst from the Middle Ages until the arrival of the potato in the 16th century the dominant feature of the Irish economy was the herding of cattle, the number of cattle a person owned was equated to their social standing.[214] Thus herders would avoid slaughtering a milk-producing cow.[214] For this reason, pork and white meat were more common than beef, and thick fatty strips of salted bacon (known as rashers) and the eating of salted butter (i.e. a dairy product rather than beef itself) have been a central feature of the diet in Ireland since the Middle Ages.[214] The practice of bleeding cattle and mixing the blood with milk and butter (not unlike the practice of the Maasai) was common[215] and black pudding, made from blood, grain (usually barley) and seasoning, remains a breakfast staple in Ireland. All of these influences can be seen today in the phenomenon of the "breakfast roll". The introduction of the potato in the second half of the 16th century heavily influenced cuisine thereafter. Great poverty encouraged a subsistence approach to food, and by the mid-19th century, the vast majority of the population sufficed with a diet of potatoes and milk.[216] A typical family, consisting of a man, a woman and four children, would eat 18 stone (110 kg) of potatoes per week.[214] Consequently, dishes that are considered as national dishes represent a fundamental simplicity to cooking, such as the Irish stew, bacon and cabbage, boxty, a type of potato pancake, or colcannon, a dish of mashed potatoes and kale or cabbage.[214] Since the last quarter of the 20th century, with a re-emergence of wealth in Ireland, a "New Irish Cuisine" based on traditional ingredients incorporating international influences[217] has emerged.[218] This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables, fish (especially salmon, trout, oysters, mussels and other shellfish), as well as traditional soda breads and the wide range of hand-made cheeses that are now being produced across the country. An example of this new cuisine is "Dublin Lawyer": lobster cooked in whiskey and cream.[219] The potato remains however a fundamental feature of this cuisine and the Irish remain the highest per capita[214] consumers of potatoes in Europe. Traditional regional foods can be found throughout the country, for example coddle in Dublin or drisheen in Cork, both a type of sausage, or blaa, a doughy white bread particular to Waterford. The Old Bushmills Distillery in County Antrim Ireland once dominated the world's market for whiskey, producing 90% of the world's whiskey at the start of the 20th century. However, as a consequence of bootleggers during the prohibition in the United States (who sold poor-quality whiskey bearing Irish-sounding names thus eroding the pre-prohibition popularity for Irish brands)[220] and tariffs on Irish whiskey across the British Empire during the Anglo-Irish Trade War of the 1930s,[221] sales of Irish whiskey worldwide fell to a mere 2% by the mid-20th century.[222] In 1953, an Irish government survey, found that 50% of whiskey drinkers in the United States had never heard of Irish whiskey.[223] Irish whiskey, as researched in 2009 by the CNBC American broadcaster, remains popular domestically and has grown in international sales steadily over a few decades.[224] Typically CNBC states Irish whiskey is not as smoky as a Scotch whisky, but not as sweet as American or Canadian whiskies.[224] Whiskey forms the basis of cream liqueurs, such as Baileys, and the "Irish coffee" (a cocktail of coffee and whiskey reputedly invented at Foynes flying-boat station) is probably the best-known Irish cocktail. Stout, a kind of porter beer, particularly Guinness, is typically associated with Ireland, although historically it was more closely associated with London. Porter remains very popular, although it has lost sales since the mid-20th century to lager. Cider, particularly Magners (marketed in the Republic of Ireland as Bulmers), is also a popular drink. Red lemonade, a soft-drink, is consumed on its own and as a mixer, particularly with whiskey.[225] Economy Main articles: Economy of the Republic of Ireland and Economy of Northern Ireland See also: International Financial Services Centre, Dublin The GDP of the Republic of Ireland as of 2021 was €423.5 billion (nominal),[226] and in Northern Ireland in 2021, it was £52 billion (GVA Balanced).[227] The GDP per capita in the Republic of Ireland was €84,049.9 (nominal) as of 2021,[226] and in Northern Ireland 2021 was £27,154 (GVA Balanced).[227] The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom measure these numbers differently. Despite the two jurisdictions using two distinct currencies (the euro and pound sterling), a growing amount of commercial activity is carried out on an all-Ireland basis. This has been facilitated by the two jurisdictions' former shared membership of the European Union, and there have been calls from members of the business community and policymakers for the creation of an "all-Ireland economy" to take advantage of economies of scale and boost competitiveness.[228] Regional economics Below is a comparison of the regional GDP on the island of Ireland. Republic of Ireland: Northern and Western Republic of Ireland: Eastern and Midland Republic of Ireland: Southern United Kingdom: Northern Ireland GDP (2018): €22 bn[229] GDP (2018): €175 bn[229] GDP (2018): €127 bn[229] GDP (2021): £52 bn[227] €24,926 per person[230] €74,824 per person[230] €77,794 per person[230] £27,154 per person[227] Northern Ireland trade comparison Below is a comparison of the goods being sold and purchased between Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom, compared with the goods being exported and imported between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland: Northern Ireland Sales/Exports[231] United Kingdom Republic of Ireland 2020 £11.3 billion £4.2 billion 2021 £12.8 billion £5.2 billion Northern Ireland Purchases/Imports[231] United Kingdom Republic of Ireland 2020 £13.4 billion £2.5 billion 2021 £14.4 billion £3.1 billion Cost of living comparison Below is a comparison of the monthly cost of living and average wage after tax in Northern Ireland versus those in the Republic of Ireland in 2023: Monthly Cost of Living Comparison[232][233] Northern Ireland Republic of Ireland Cost of living (1 person) $1459 $2198 Average wage after tax $2393 $3010 Economic history Main article: Economic history of Ireland Prior to partition in 1921, Ireland had a long history as an economic colony – first, partially, of the Norse, via their cities (9th to 10th centuries CE), and later, to varying extents, of polities related to England. Though the climate and soil favoured certain forms of agriculture,[234] trade barriers frequently hobbled its development. Repeated invasions and plantations disrupted land-ownership, and multiple failed uprisings also contributed to repeated phases of deportation and of emigration. Salient events in the economic history of Ireland include: 16th and 17th centuries: confiscation and redistribution of land in the Plantations of Ireland 1845–1849: The Great Famine occasioned depopulation and mass emigration 1846: Westminster's repeal of the Corn Laws disrupted Irish agriculture[235] Major industries Tourism Main article: Tourist destinations in Ireland Inisheer (Inis Oírr), Aran Islands There are three World Heritage Sites on the island: the Brú na Bóinne complex, Skellig Michael and the Giant's Causeway.[236] Several other places are on the tentative list, for example the Burren, the Ceide Fields[237] and Mount Stewart.[238] Some of the most visited sites in Ireland include Bunratty Castle, the Rock of Cashel, the Cliffs of Moher, Holy Cross Abbey and Blarney Castle.[239] Historically important monastic sites include Glendalough and Clonmacnoise, which are maintained as national monuments in the Republic of Ireland.[240] The Dublin region receives the most tourists[239] and is home to several of the most popular attractions such as the Guinness Storehouse and Book of Kells.[239] The west and south west, which includes the Lakes of Killarney and the Dingle peninsula in County Kerry and Connemara and the Aran Islands in County Galway, are also popular tourist destinations.[239] Achill Island lies off the coast of County Mayo and is Ireland's largest island. It is a popular tourist destination for surfing and contains 5 Blue Flag beaches and Croaghaun one of the world's highest sea cliffs. Stately homes, built during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries in Palladian, Neoclassical and neo-Gothic styles, such as Castle Ward, Castletown House, Bantry House, Strokestown Park and Glenveagh Castle are also of interest to tourists. Some have been converted into hotels, such as Ashford Castle,[241] Castle Leslie[242] and Dromoland Castle.[243] Energy Main article: Energy in Ireland Although for most of their existence electricity networks in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland were entirely separate, the island has operated for some time as a single market for electricity.[244] Both networks were designed and constructed independently post-partition but they are now connected with three interlinks[245] and are also connected through Great Britain to mainland Europe. The situation in Northern Ireland is complicated by the issue of private companies not supplying Northern Ireland Electricity with enough power. In the Republic of Ireland, the ESB has failed to modernise its power stations, and the availability of power plants has recently averaged only 66%, one of the worst such rates in Western Europe. EirGrid has started building a HVDC transmission line between Ireland and Great Britain with a capacity of 500 MW,[246] about 10% of Ireland's peak demand. As with electricity, the natural gas distribution network is also now all-island, with a pipeline linking Gormanston, County Meath, and Ballyclare, County Antrim.[247] Most of Ireland's gas comes through interconnectors between Twynholm in Scotland and Ballylumford, County Antrim and Loughshinny, County Dublin. Supplies come from the Corrib Gas Field, off the coast of County Mayo, with a supply previously also coming from the Kinsale gas field off the County Cork coast.[248][249] The County Mayo field faces some localised opposition over a controversial decision to refine the gas onshore. Turf-cutting near Maam Cross by the road to Leenane, County Galway Ireland has an ancient industry based on peat (known locally as "turf") as a source of energy for home fires. A form of biomass energy, this source of heat is still widely used in rural areas. However, because of the ecological importance of peatlands in storing carbon and their rarity, the EU is attempting to protect this habitat by fining Ireland for digging up peat. In cities, heat is generally supplied by natural gas or heating oil, although some urban suppliers distribute sods of turf as "smokeless fuel" for domestic use. The Republic has a strong commitment to renewable energy and ranks as one of the top 10 markets for clean-technology investment in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index.[250] Research and development in renewable energy (such as wind power) has increased since 2004. Large wind farms have been constructed in Cork, Donegal, Mayo and Antrim. The construction of wind farms has in some cases been delayed by opposition from local communities, some of whom regard the wind turbines as unsightly. The Republic is hindered by an ageing network that was not designed to handle the varying availability of power that comes from wind farms. The ESB's Turlough Hill facility is the only power-storage facility in the state.[251] Notes Including surrounding islands Numbers vary, from a low of 12,000.[68] Giovanni Battista Rinuccini wrote 50,000,[69] T. N. Burke said 80,000 to 100,000.[69] Part of Belfast metropolitan area References Nolan, William. "Geography of Ireland". Government of Ireland. 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Irish Politics Today. Manchester University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-7190-6174-5. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020. Daly, Mary E. Sixties Ireland: reshaping the economy, state and society, 1957–1973 (Cambridge University Press, 2016). Dennison, Gabriel; Ni Fhloinn, Baibre (1994). Traditional Architecture in Ireland. Dublin: Environmental Institute, University College Dublin. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-898473-09-1. Dooney, Sean; O'Toole, John (1992). Irish Government Today. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-7171-1703-1. Ellis, Steven G. (1921). The Story of the Irish Race: A Popular History of Ireland. Ireland: The Irish Publishing Co. p. 768. ISBN 978-0-517-06408-5. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2020. Ferriter, Diarmaid. "Women and political change in Ireland since 1960." Éire-Ireland 43.1 (2008): 179–204. Foster, Robert Fitzroy (1988). Modern Ireland, 1600–1972. Penguin Books. p. 688. ISBN 978-0-7139-9010-2. Foster, R. F. Luck and the Irish: A Brief History of Change 1970-2000 (2007) excerpt Archived 30 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine Herm, Gerhard (2002). The Celts. Ireland: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-31343-2. O'Croinin, Daibhi (2005). Prehistoric and Early Ireland. Oxford University Press. p. 1219. ISBN 978-0-19-821737-4. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2020. Ó Gráda, Cormac (1997). A Rocky Road: The Irish Economy Since the 1920s. Manchester University Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-7190-4584-4. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2020. Oppenheimer, Stephen (2006). Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story. New York: Carroll & Graf. p. 534. ISBN 978-0-7867-1890-0. O'Rahilly, T. F. (1947). Early Irish History and Mythology. Medieval Academy of America. Woodcock, N. H.; Strachan, Robin A. (2000). Geological History of Britain and Ireland. Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell Publishing. p. 423. ISBN 978-0-632-03656-1. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2020. Wallis, Geoff; Wilson, Sue (2001). The Rough Guide to Irish Music. Rough Guides. p. 599. ISBN 978-1-85828-642-6. External links Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Republic of Ireland. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Northern Ireland. Wikiquote has quotations related to Ireland. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ireland. 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Click here for more information. Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the alcoholic drink. For other uses, see Beer (disambiguation). Schlenkerla Rauchbier, a traditional smoked beer, being poured from a cask into a beer glass Beer is an alcoholic beverage produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley, although wheat, maize (corn), rice, and oats are also used. The fermentation of the starch sugars in the wort produces ethanol and carbonation in the beer.[1] Beer is one of the oldest alcoholic drinks in the world,[2][3][4] the most widely consumed,[5] and the third most popular drink after water and tea.[6](p 1) Most modern beer is brewed with hops, which add bitterness and other flavours and act as a natural preservative and stabilising agent. Other flavouring agents, such as gruit, herbs, or fruits, may be included or used instead of hops. In commercial brewing, natural carbonation is often replaced with forced carbonation.[7] Some of the earliest writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating it,[8] and "The Hymn to Ninkasi", a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, a recipe for it.[9][10] Beer is distributed in bottles and cans and is also commonly available on draught, particularly in pubs and bars. The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of modern beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume (ABV).[11] Beer forms part of the culture of many nations and is associated with social traditions such as beer festivals, as well as activities like pub crawling, pub quizzes, and pub games. Etymology See also: Ale § Etymology Old English: Beore 'beer' In early forms of English and in the Scandinavian languages, the usual word for beer was the word whose Modern English form is ale.[12] The modern word beer comes into present-day English from Old English bēor, itself from Common Germanic, it is found throughout the West Germanic and North Germanic dialects (modern Dutch and German bier, Old Norse bjórr). The earlier etymology of the word is debated: the three main theories are that the word originates in Proto-Germanic *beuzą (putatively from Proto-Indo-European *bʰeusóm), meaning 'brewer's yeast, beer dregs'; that it is related to the word barley, or that it was somehow borrowed from Latin bibere 'to drink'.[13][14][12] It is speculated by Christine Fell in Leeds Studies in English (1975), that the Old English/Norse word bēor did not denote ale or beer, but a strong, sweet drink rather like mead or cider; however, in Europe, the meaning of bēor expanded to cover the meaning of ale. When hopped ale from Europe was imported into Britain in the late Middle Ages using the word beer it was originally used to denote hopped ale to differentiate from the British unhopped ale, though later it came to mean all forms of beer.[12] History Main article: History of beer Ancient Egyptian painting, 18th dynasty, reign of Akhenaten, c. 1300 BC, showing Syrian mercenary drinking beer through a straw. Egyptian Museum of Berlin Beer is one of the world's oldest prepared alcoholic drinks. The earliest archaeological evidence of fermentation consists of 13,000 year-old residues of a beer with the consistency of gruel, used by the semi-nomadic Natufians for ritual feasting, at the Raqefet Cave in the Carmel Mountains near Haifa in Israel.[15][16] There is evidence that beer was produced at Göbekli Tepe during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (around 8500 BC to 5500 BC).[17] The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer produced from barley dates to about 3500–3100 BC, from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran.[18][19] It is possible, but not proven, that it dates back even further – to about 10,000 BC, when cereal was first farmed.[20] Beer is recorded in the written history of ancient Egypt,[21][22] and archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilizations.[23] Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk (modern day Iraq) were paid by their employers with volumes of beer.[24] During the building of the Great Pyramids in Giza, Egypt, each worker got a daily ration of four to five litres of beer, which served as both nutrition and refreshment and was crucial to the pyramids' construction.[25] Some of the earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer; examples include a prayer to the goddess Ninkasi, known as "The Hymn to Ninkasi",[26] which served as both a prayer and a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people, and the ancient advice ("Fill your belly. Day and night make merry") to Gilgamesh, recorded in the Epic of Gilgamesh by the alewife Siduri, may, at least in part, have referred to the consumption of beer.[27] The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, show that beer was produced in the city in 2500 BC.[28] A fermented drink using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice (amylolytic fermentation); the rice was probably prepared for fermentation by chewing or malting.[29][30] During the Vedic period in Ancient India, there are records of the consumption of the beer-like sura.[31][32] Xenophon noted that during his travels, beer was being produced in Armenia.[33] Almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation and thus be utilised in the brewing of beer. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a sweet liquid could be obtained from a source of starch, independently invented beer. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for the development of other technologies and contributed to the building of civilizations.[34][35][36][37] François Jaques: Peasants enjoying beer at pub in Fribourg (Switzerland, 1923) Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale.[6](artc. 1025)[38] The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today. Alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers may have contained fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices, and other substances such as narcotic herbs.[6](p 2) What they did not contain was hops, as that was a later addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot[39] and again in 1067 by abbess Hildegard of Bingen.[6](p110) In 1516, William IV, Duke of Bavaria, adopted the Reinheitsgebot (purity law), perhaps the oldest food-quality regulation still in use in the 21st century, according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water, hops, and barley-malt.[40] Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century.[41] The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. In 1912, brown bottles began to be used by the Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the United States. This innovation has since been accepted worldwide as it prevents light rays from degrading the quality and stability of beer.[42] The brewing industry is now a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers, ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries.[43] As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres (35 billion US gallons), the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, producing total global revenues of US$294.5 billion. In 2010, China's beer consumption hit 450 million hectolitres (45 billion litres), or nearly twice that of the United States, but only 5 per cent sold were premium beers, compared with 50 per cent in France and Germany.[44] A widely publicised study in 2018 suggested that sudden decreases in barley production due to extreme drought and heat could in the future cause substantial volatility in the availability and price of beer.[45] Brewing A clickable diagram depicting the process of brewing beerHot water tankMash tunMaltHopsCopperHopbackAdd yeast to fermenterHeat exchangerBottlingCask or keg Main article: Brewing The process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, though beer can be made at home and has been for much of its history, in which case the brewing location is often called a brewhouse. A company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a domestic scale for non-commercial reasons is today usually classified as homebrewing, regardless of where it is made, though most homebrewed beer is made at home. Historically, domestic beer was what's called farmhouse ale. Brewing beer has been subject to legislation and taxation for millennia, and from the late 19th century on, taxation largely restricted brewing to commercial operations only in the UK. However, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978,[46] though individual states were allowed to pass their own laws limiting production,[47] allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby. The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called wort and to convert the wort into the alcoholic drink known as beer in a fermentation process effected by yeast. The first step, where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source (normally malted barley) with hot water, is known as "mashing". Hot water (known as "liquor" in brewing terms) is mixed with crushed malt or malts (known as "grist") in a mash tun.[48] The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours,[49] during which the starches are converted to sugars, and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains. The grains are then washed in a process known as "sparging". This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible. The process of filtering the spent grain from the wort and sparge water is called wort separation. The traditional process for wort separation is lautering, in which the grain bed itself serves as the filter medium. Some modern breweries prefer the use of filter frames, which allow for a more finely ground grist.[50] Most modern breweries use a continuous sparge, collecting the original wort and the sparge water together. However, it is possible to collect a second or even third wash with the not quite spent grains as separate batches. Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus, a weaker beer. This process is known as the second (and third) runnings. Brewing with several runnings is called parti gyle brewing.[51] A 16th-century brewery The sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle, or "copper" (so-called because these vessels were traditionally made from copper),[52] and boiled, usually for about one hour. During boiling, the water in the wort evaporates, but the sugars and other components of the wort remain; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer. Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage. Hops are added during boiling as a source of bitterness, flavour, and aroma. Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil. The longer the hops are boiled, the more bitterness they contribute, but the less hop flavour and aroma remain in the beer.[53] After boiling, the hopped wort is cooled and ready for the yeast. In some breweries, the hopped wort may pass through a hopback, which is a small vat filled with hops, to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter, but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter, where the yeast is added. During fermentation, the wort becomes beer in a process that takes a week to several months, depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer. In addition to producing ethanol, fine particulate matter suspended in the wort settles during fermentation. Once fermentation is complete, the yeast also settles, leaving the beer clear.[54] During fermentation, most of the carbon dioxide is allowed to escape through a trap, and the beer is left with carbonation of only about one atmosphere of pressure. The carbonation is often increased either by transferring the beer to a pressure vessel such as a keg and introducing pressurised carbon dioxide or by transferring it before the fermentation is finished so that carbon dioxide pressure builds up inside the container as the fermentation finishes. Sometimes the beer is put unfiltered (so it still contains yeast) into bottles with some added sugar, which then produces the desired amount of carbon dioxide inside the bottle.[7] Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages: primary and secondary. Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation, the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of secondary fermentation. Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity.[55] When the beer has fermented, it is packaged either into casks for cask ale or kegs, aluminium cans, or bottles for other sorts of beer.[56] Ingredients Malted barley before roasting The basic ingredients of beer are water; a starch source, such as malted barley or malted maize (such as used in the preparation of Tiswin and Tesgüino), able to be saccharified (converted to sugars) and then fermented (converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide); a brewer's yeast to produce the fermentation; and a flavouring such as hops.[57] A mixture of starch sources may be used, with a secondary carbohydrate source, such as maize (corn), rice, wheat, or sugar, often termed an adjunct, especially when used alongside malted barley.[58] Less widely used starch sources include millet, sorghum, and cassava root in Africa; potato in Brazil; and agave in Mexico, among others.[59] The amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill. Water is the main ingredient in beer, accounting for 93% of its weight.[60] Though water itself is, ideally, flavourless, its level of dissolved minerals, specifically bicarbonate ions, does influence beer's finished taste.[61] Due to the mineral properties of each region's water, specific areas were originally the sole producers of certain types of beer, each identifiable by regional characteristics.[62] Regional geology accords that Dublin's hard water is well-suited to making stout, such as Guinness, while the Plzeň Region's soft water is ideal for brewing Pilsner (pale lager), such as Pilsner Urquell.[62] The waters of Burton in England contain gypsum, which benefits making pale ale to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as Burtonisation.[63] The starch source, termed the "mash ingredients", in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain. Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin germination, and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars.[64] Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain. Darker malts will produce darker beers.[65] Nearly all beers include barley malt as the majority of the starch. This is because its fibrous hull remains attached to the grain during threshing. After malting, barley is milled, which finally removes the hull, breaking it into large pieces. These pieces remain with the grain during the mash and act as a filter bed during lautering, when sweet wort is separated from insoluble grain material. Other malted and unmalted grains (including wheat, rice, oats, and rye, and less frequently, corn and sorghum) may be used. Some brewers have produced gluten-free beer, made with sorghum with no barley malt, for those who cannot consume gluten-containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye.[66] Hop cone in a Hallertau, Germany, hop yard Flavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of hops.[67] The flower of the hop vine is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today. The flowers themselves are often called "hops". The first historical mention of the use of hops in beer dates from 822 AD in monastery rules written by Adalhard the Elder, also known as Adalard of Corbie,[41][68] though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century.[41][68] Before the thirteenth century and until the sixteenth century, during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring, beer was flavoured with other plants, for instance, grains of paradise or alehoof. Combinations of various aromatic herbs, berries, and even ingredients like wormwood would be combined into a mixture known as gruit and used as hops are now used.[69] Some beers today, such as Fraoch' by the Scottish Heather Ales company[70] and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie-Lancelot company,[71] use plants other than hops for flavouring. Hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer. Hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt; the bitterness of beers is measured on the International Bitterness Units scale. Hops contribute floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours to beer. Hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and aids in "head retention",[72][73] the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last. The acidity of hops is a preservative.[74][75] Yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer. Yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains, which produce alcohol and carbon dioxide, and thereby turns wort into beer. In addition to fermenting the beer, yeast influences the character and flavour.[76] The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are top-fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bottom-fermenting Saccharomyces pastorianus.[77] Brettanomyces ferments lambics,[78] and Torulaspora delbrueckii ferments Bavarian weissbier.[79] Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts. A few styles, such as lambics, rely on this method today, but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast cultures.[80] Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents or finings to beer, which typically precipitate (collect as a solid) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. This process makes the beer appear bright and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer, such as wheat beers.[81] Examples of clarifying agents include isinglass, obtained from the swimbladders of fish; Irish moss, a seaweed; kappa carrageenan, from the seaweed Kappaphycus cottonii; Polyclar (artificial); and gelatin.[82] If a beer is marked "suitable for vegans", it is clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents.[83] Brewing industry Brewing factory Annual beer consumption per capita by country The history of breweries in the 21st century has included larger breweries absorbing smaller breweries in order to ensure economy of scale.[clarification needed] In 2002, South African Breweries bought the North American Miller Brewing Company to found SABMiller, becoming the second-largest brewery after North American Anheuser-Busch. In 2004, the Belgian Interbrew was the third-largest brewery by volume, and the Brazilian AmBev was the fifth-largest. They merged into InBev, becoming the largest brewery. In 2007, SABMiller surpassed InBev and Anheuser-Busch when it acquired Royal Grolsch, the brewer of Dutch brand Grolsch.[84] In 2008, when InBev (the second-largest) bought Anheuser-Busch (the third-largest), the new Anheuser-Busch InBev company became again the largest brewer in the world.[85] As of 2020, according to the market research firm Technavio, AB InBev remains the largest brewing company in the world, with Heineken second, CR Snow third, Carlsberg fourth, and Molson Coors fifth.[86] A microbrewery, or craft brewery, produces a limited amount of beer. The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a 'microbrewery' varies by region and by authority; in the US, it is 15,000 US beer barrels (1.8 megalitres; 390 thousand imperial gallons; 460 thousand US gallons) a year.[87] A brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a pub or other drinking establishment. The highest density of breweries in the world, most of them microbreweries, exists in Franconia, Germany, especially in the district of Upper Franconia, which has about 200 breweries.[88][89] The Benedictine Weihenstephan brewery in Bavaria, Germany, can trace its roots to the year 768, as a document from that year refers to a hop garden in the area paying a tithe to the monastery. The brewery was licensed by the City of Freising in 1040 and is therefore the oldest working brewery in the world.[90] Varieties Main article: Beer style Cask ale hand pumps with pump clips detailing the beers and their breweries While there are many types of beer brewed, the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries.[91] The traditional European brewing regions—Germany, Belgium, England and the Czech Republic—have local varieties of beer.[92] English writer Michael Jackson, in his 1977 book The World Guide To Beer, categorised beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names.[93] Fred Eckhardt furthered Jackson's work in The Essentials of Beer Style in 1989. Top-fermented beers Top-fermented beers are most commonly produced with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a top-fermenting yeast which clumps and rises to the surface,[94] typically between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F). At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and the result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling apple, pear, pineapple, banana, plum, or prune, among others.[95] After the introduction of hops into England from Flanders in the 15th century, "ale" referred to an unhopped fermented drink, "beer" being used to describe a brew with an infusion of hops.[96] Real ale is the term coined by the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) in 1973[97] for "beer brewed from traditional ingredients, matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is dispensed, and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide". It is applied to bottle conditioned and cask conditioned beers. Pale ale is a beer which uses a top-fermenting yeast,[98] and predominantly pale malt. It is one of the world's major beer styles and includes India pale ale (IPA).[99] Mild ale has a predominantly malty palate. It is usually dark coloured with an abv of 3% to 3.6%, although there are lighter hued milds as well as stronger examples reaching 6% abv and higher. Wheat beer is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of malted barley. Wheat beers are usually top-fermented.[100] The flavour of wheat beers varies considerably, depending upon the specific style. Stout is a dark beer made using roasted barley, and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast. There are a number of variations including dry stout (such as Guinness), sweet stout, and Imperial (or Russian) stout.[99] Stout was originally the strongest variety of porter, a dark brown beer popular with the street and river porters of eighteenth century London.[101][102][99][103][104] Bottom-fermented beers Kriek, a variety of beer brewed with cherries Lager is cool fermented beer. Pale lagers are the most commonly consumed beers in the world. Many are of the "pilsner" type. The name "lager" comes from the German "lagern" for "to store", as brewers around Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months. These brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment, and to also clear of sediment, when stored in cool conditions.[105] Lager yeast is a cool bottom-fermenting yeast (Saccharomyces pastorianus) and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7–12 °C (45–54 °F) (the fermentation phase), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0–4 °C (32–39 °F) (the lagering phase). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of esters and other byproducts, resulting in a "cleaner"-tasting beer.[106] With improved modern yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1–3 weeks. Other types of beer Lambic, a beer of Belgium, is naturally fermented using wild yeasts, rather than cultivated. Many of these are not strains of brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness. Yeast varieties such as Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Brettanomyces lambicus are common in lambics. In addition, other organisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness.[107] Measurement Main article: Beer measurement Beer is measured and assessed by colour, by strength and by bitterness. The perceived bitterness is measured by the International Bitterness Units scale (IBU), defined in co-operation between the American Society of Brewing Chemists and the European Brewery Convention.[108] The international scale was a development of the European Bitterness Units scale, often abbreviated as EBU, and the bitterness values should be identical.[109] Colour Paulaner dunkel – a dark lager Beer colour is determined by the malt.[110] The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. Pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried and roasted with the fuel coke. Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used.[111][112] In terms of sales volume, most of today's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of Pilsen in the present-day Czech Republic.[113] The modern pale lager is light in colour due to use of coke for kilning, which gives off heat with little smoke.[114] Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants—such as caramel—are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as stout, use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer. Some have roasted unmalted barley.[115][116] Strength See also: Beer measurement § Strength Beer ranges from less than 3% alcohol by volume (abv) to around 14% abv, though this strength can be increased to around 20% by re-pitching with champagne yeast,[117] and to 55% abv by the freeze-distilling process.[118] The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice or beer style.[119] The pale lagers that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4–6%, with a typical abv of 5%.[120] The customary strength of British ales is quite low, with many session beers being around 4% abv.[121] In Belgium, some beers, such as table beer are of such low alcohol content (1%–4%) that they are served instead of soft drinks in some schools.[122] The weakest beers are dealcoholized beers, which typically have less than 0.05% alcohol (also called "near beer") and light beers, which usually have 4% alcohol. The alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation. The quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer. Additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content, and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer (primarily "light" beers) to convert more complex carbohydrates (starches) to fermentable sugars. Alcohol is a by-product of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast in higher concentrations; typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12% by volume. Low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts and consequently decreases the alcohol content. The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century. Vetter 33, a 10.5% abv (33 degrees Plato, hence Vetter "33") doppelbock, was listed in the 1994 Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest beer at that time,[123][124] though Samichlaus, by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann, had also been listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest at 14% abv.[125][126][127] Since then, some brewers have used champagne yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers. Samuel Adams reached 20% abv with Millennium,[117] and then surpassed that amount to 25.6% abv with Utopias. The strongest beer brewed in Britain was Baz's Super Brew by Parish Brewery, a 23% abv beer.[128][129] In September 2011, the Scottish brewery BrewDog produced Ghost Deer, which, at 28%, they claim to be the world's strongest beer produced by fermentation alone.[130] The product claimed to be the strongest beer made is Schorschbräu's 2011 Schorschbock 57 with 57,5%.[131][132] It was preceded by The End of History, a 55% Belgian ale,[118] made by BrewDog in 2010. The same company had previously made Sink The Bismarck!, a 41% abv IPA,[133] and Tactical Nuclear Penguin, a 32% abv Imperial stout. Each of these beers are made using the eisbock method of fractional freezing, in which a strong ale is partially frozen and the ice is repeatedly removed, until the desired strength is reached,[134][135] a process that may class the product as spirits rather than beer.[136] The German brewery Schorschbräu's Schorschbock, a 31% abv eisbock,[137][138][139] and Hair of the Dog's Dave, a 29% abv barley wine made in 1994, used the same fractional freezing method.[140] A 60% abv blend of beer with whiskey was jokingly claimed as the strongest beer by a Dutch brewery in July 2010.[141][142] Serving Draught Main articles: Draught beer and Cask ale A selection of cask beers Draught (also spelled "draft") beer from a pressurised keg using a lever-style dispenser and a spout is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with carbon dioxide (CO2) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet. Some beers may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. Nitrogen produces fine bubbles, resulting in a dense head and a creamy mouthfeel. Some types of beer can also be found in smaller, disposable kegs called beer balls. In traditional pubs, the pull levers for major beer brands may include the beer's logo and trademark. In the 1980s, Guinness introduced the beer widget, a nitrogen-pressurised ball inside a can which creates a dense, tight head, similar to beer served from a nitrogen system.[143] The words draft and draught can be used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers containing a beer widget, or which are cold-filtered rather than pasteurised. Cask-conditioned ales (or cask ales) are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers. These beers are termed "real ale" by the CAMRA organisation. Typically, when a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a frame called a "stillage" which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle, and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically between 11–13 °C or 52–55 °F),[144] before being tapped and vented—a tap is driven through a (usually rubber) bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard spile or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask, which is now uppermost. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period to "drop" (clear) again, as well as to fully condition—this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days. At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being "gravity-fed" directly into the glass. Draught beer's environmental impact can be 68% lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences.[145][146] A life cycle study of one beer brand, including grain production, brewing, bottling, distribution and waste management, shows that the CO2 emissions from a 6-pack of micro-brew beer is about 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds).[147] The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6-pack of micro-brew beer is estimated to be 2.5 square metres (26 square feet).[148] Downstream emissions from distribution, retail, storage and disposal of waste can be over 45% of a bottled micro-brew beer's CO2 emissions.[147] Where legal, the use of a refillable jug, reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from a store or a bar, rather than buying pre-bottled beer, can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption.[149] Packaging Main articles: Beer bottle and Drink can Assortment of beer bottles Most beers are cleared of yeast by filtering when packaged in bottles and cans.[150] However, bottle conditioned beers retain some yeast—either by being unfiltered, or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast.[151] It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast; this practice is customary with wheat beers. Typically, when serving a hefeweizen wheat beer, 90% of the contents are poured, and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass. Alternatively, the bottle may be inverted prior to opening. Glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers. Many beers are sold in cans, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries. In Sweden in 2001, 63.9% of beer was sold in cans.[152] People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. A technology developed by Crown Holdings for the 2010 FIFA World Cup is the 'full aperture' can, so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process, turning the can into a drinking cup.[153] Cans protect the beer from light (thereby preventing "skunked" beer) and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles.[154] Plastic (PET) bottles are used by some breweries.[155] Temperature The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience; warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing. Most drinkers prefer pale lager to be served chilled, a low- or medium-strength pale ale to be served cool, while a strong barley wine or imperial stout to be served at room temperature.[156] Beer writer Michael Jackson proposed a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled (7 °C or 45 °F) for "light" beers (pale lagers); chilled (8 °C or 46 °F) for Berliner Weisse and other wheat beers; lightly chilled (9 °C or 48 °F) for all dark lagers, altbier and German wheat beers; cellar temperature (13 °C or 55 °F) for regular British ale, stout and most Belgian specialities; and room temperature (15.5 °C or 60 °F) for strong dark ales (especially trappist beer) and barley wine.[157] Drinking chilled beer began with the development of artificial refrigeration and by the 1870s, was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager.[158] Chilling beer makes it more refreshing,[159] though below 15.5 °C (60 °F) the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness[160] and reduces it significantly below 10 °C (50 °F).[161] Beer served unchilled—either cool or at room temperature—reveal more of their flavours. Cask Marque, a non-profit UK beer organisation, has set a temperature standard range of 12°–14 °C (53°–57 °F) for cask ales to be served.[162] Vessels Main article: Beer glassware Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a beer stein, a mug, a pewter tankard, a beer bottle or a can; or at music festivals and some bars and nightclubs, from a plastic cup. The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style.[163] Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion, as this increases sales of their product.[164] The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation. The rate of flow from the tap or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down the side) into the glass all influence the result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and the release of carbonation.[165] A beer tower is a beer dispensing device, usually found in bars and pubs, that consists of a cylinder attached to a beer cooling device at the bottom. Beer is dispensed from the beer tower into a drinking vessel. Chemistry Main article: Beer chemistry Organic aromatic acids found naturally in beer, such as tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine, absorb blue light and fluoresce in green under 450 nm laser light.[166] Beer contains the phenolic acids 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and sinapic acid. Alkaline hydrolysis experiments show that most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds.[167] Hops, and beer made with it, contain 8-prenylnaringenin which is a potent phytoestrogen.[168] Hop also contains myrcene, humulene, xanthohumol, isoxanthohumol, myrcenol, linalool, tannins, and resin. The alcohol 2M2B is a component of hops brewing.[169] Barley, in the form of malt, brings the condensed tannins prodelphinidins B3, B9 and C2 into beer. Tryptophol, tyrosol, and phenylethanol are aromatic higher alcohols found in beer[170] as secondary products of alcoholic fermentation[171] (products also known as congeners) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nutritional information Beers vary in their nutritional content.[172] The ingredients used to make beer, including the yeast, provide a rich source of nutrients; therefore beer may contain nutrients including magnesium, selenium, potassium, phosphorus, biotin, chromium and B vitamins. Beer is sometimes referred to as "liquid bread",[173] though beer is not a meal in itself.[174] Nutritional information of different beers (serving size: 12 oz./355 ml) Beer Brand Carbohydrate (g) Alcohol (%) Energy (kcal) Budweiser Select 55 1.8 2.4 55 Coors Light 5 4.2 102 Guinness Draught 10 4.0 126 Sierra Nevada Bigfoot 30.3 9.6 330 Society and culture See also: Drinking culture and Category:Beer culture A tent at Munich's Oktoberfest in Germany. The event is known as the world's largest beer festival. In many societies, beer is the most popular alcoholic drink. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as playing cards, darts, or other pub games; attending beer festivals; engaging in zythology (the study of beer);[175][176] visiting a series of pubs in one evening; visiting breweries; beer-oriented tourism; or rating beer.[177] Drinking games, such as beer pong, are also popular.[178] Even having a "shower beer" has developed a following.[179] A relatively new profession is that of the beer sommelier, who informs restaurant patrons about beers and food pairings. Some breweries have developed beers to pair with food.[180][181][182] Wine writer Malcolm Gluck disputed the need to pair beer with food, while beer writers Roger Protz and Melissa Cole contested that claim.[183][184][185] Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies[186][187] and is consumed in countries all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Syria, and in some African countries. Sales of beer are four times those of wine, which is the second most popular alcoholic drink.[188] A study published in the Neuropsychopharmacology journal in 2013 revealed the finding that the flavour of beer alone could provoke dopamine activity in the brain of the male participants, who wanted to drink more as a result. The 49 men in the study were subject to positron emission tomography scans, while a computer-controlled device sprayed minute amounts of beer, water and a sports drink onto their tongues. Compared with the taste of the sports drink, the taste of beer significantly increased the participants desire to drink. Test results indicated that the flavour of the beer triggered a dopamine release, even though alcohol content in the spray was insufficient for the purpose of becoming intoxicated.[189] Related drinks See also: Category:Types of beer Around the world, there are many traditional and ancient starch-based drinks classed as beer. In Africa, there are various ethnic beers made from sorghum or millet, such as Oshikundu[190] in Namibia and Tella in Ethiopia.[191] Kyrgyzstan also has a beer made from millet; it is a low alcohol, somewhat porridge-like drink called "Bozo".[192] Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet and Sikkim also use millet in Chhaang, a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern Himalayas.[193] Further east in China are found Huangjiu and Choujiu—traditional rice-based drinks related to beer. The Andes in South America has Chicha, made from germinated maize (corn); while the indigenous peoples in Brazil have Cauim, a traditional drink made since pre-Columbian times by chewing manioc so that an enzyme (amylase) present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars;[194] this is similar to Masato in Peru.[195] Some beers which are made from bread, which is linked to the earliest forms of beer, are Sahti in Finland, Kvass in Russia and Ukraine, and Bouza in Sudan. 4000 years ago fermented bread was used in Mesopotamia. Food waste activists got inspired by these ancient recipes and use leftover bread to replace a third of the malted barley that would otherwise be used for brewing their craft ale.[196] Health effects See also: Short-term effects of alcohol consumption and Long-term effects of alcohol consumption A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that moderate ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption.[197] Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men, per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death.[198] Some of these studies combined former ethanol drinkers and lifelong abstainers into a single group of nondrinkers, which hides the health benefits of lifelong abstention from ethanol. The long-term health effects of continuous, moderate or heavy alcohol consumption include the risk of developing alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease. Alcoholism, also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems.[199] It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence.[200][201] In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions are present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use.[201] Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years[202] and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States.[198] No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking alcoholic beverages.[198][203] In the United States, a total of 3.3 million deaths per year (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol.[204] It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly, rather than beer consumption. 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Tyrrell, Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History pp95, ABC-CLIO (2003), ISBN 978-1-57607-833-4 Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation. Cengage Learning. 2004. ISBN 978-0-618-30499-8. Retrieved 7 August 2010. Google Books Howard Hillman, The New Kitchen Science pp178, Houghton Mifflin Books (2003), ISBN 0-618-24963-X Google Books Robert J. Harrington, Food and Wine Pairing: A Sensory Experience pp. 27–28, John Wiley and Sons (2007), ISBN 0-471-79407-4 Cask Marque Archived 24 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine Standards & Charters. Retrieved 11 October 2008. F. G. Priest, Graham G. Stewart, Handbook of Brewing (2006), 48 "How Miller Brands partners with licensees to drive sales". thepublican.com. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2009. Google Books Ray Foley, Heather Dismore, Running a Bar For Dummies pp. 211–212, For Dummies (2007), ISBN 0-470-04919-7. Dramićanin, Tatjana; Zeković, Ivana; Periša, Jovana; Dramićanin, Miroslav D. (8 August 2019). 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Stockwell T, Zhao J, Panwar S, Roemer A, Naimi T, Chikritzhs T (March 2016). "Do "Moderate" Drinkers Have Reduced Mortality Risk? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Alcohol Consumption and All-Cause Mortality". J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 77 (2): 185–98. doi:10.15288/jsad.2016.77.185. PMC 4803651. PMID 26997174. O'Keefe, JH; Bhatti, SK; Bajwa, A; DiNicolantonio, JJ; Lavie, CJ (March 2014). "Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 89 (3): 382–93. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005. PMID 24582196. Jill Littrell (2014). Understanding and Treating Alcoholism Volume I: An Empirically Based Clinician's Handbook for the Treatment of Alcoholism: Volume II: Biological, Psychological, and Social Aspects of Alcohol Consumption and Abuse. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 55. ISBN 9781317783145. The World Health Organization defines alcoholism as any drinking which results in problems Hasin, Deborah (December 2003). "Classification of Alcohol Use Disorders". Alcohol Research & Health. 27 (1): 5–17. PMC 6676702. PMID 15301396. Archived from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 28 February 2015. "Alcohol Use Disorder: A Comparison Between DSM–IV and DSM–5". November 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2015. Schuckit, MA (27 November 2014). "Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens)". The New England Journal of Medicine. 371 (22): 2109–13. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1407298. PMID 25427113. S2CID 205116954. Alcohol and Heart Health Archived 19 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine American Heart Association "Alcohol Facts and Statistics". Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 9 May 2015. "Drink binges 'cause beer belly'". BBC News. 28 November 2004. Retrieved 6 November 2006. Bob Skilnik. Is there maltose in your beer?. Realbeer. Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 23 December 2007. Bibliography Alexander, Jeffrey W. (2013). Brewed in Japan: The evolution of the Japanese beer industry. University of British Columbia Press. Bennett, Judith M. (26 January 1996). Ale, Beer and Brewsters in England: Women's work in a changing world, 1300–1600. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512650-5. Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5. Cornell, Martyn (26 January 2024). Beer: The story of the pint. Headline. ISBN 978-0-7553-1165-1. Evans, Jeff (26 January 2024). The Book of Beer Knowledge: Essential wisdom for the discerning drinker, a useful miscellany. CAMRA Books. ISBN 978-1-85249-198-7. Glover, Brian (26 January 2024). The World Encyclopedia of Beer. Lorenz Books. ISBN 978-0-7548-0933-3. Glover, Brian (26 January 2024). Beer: An Illustrated History. Hermes House. ISBN 978-1-84038-597-7. Hampson, Tim (26 January 2024). The Beer Book. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-1-4093-5347-8. Haydon, Peter (26 January 2024). Beer and Britannia: An inebriated history of Britain. Sutton. ISBN 978-0-7509-2748-2. Hornsey, I. (26 January 2024). A History of Beer and Brewing. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-630-0. Jackson, Michael (6 November 1977). The World Guide to Beer. Apple Press. ISBN 1-85076-000-4. Jackson, Michael (26 January 1988). The New World Guide to Beer. Courage Books. ISBN 0-89471-884-3. Jackson, Michael (2000). Michael Jackson's Beer Companion. Running Press. ISBN 0-7624-0772-7. Kavanagh, Thomas W. "Archeological parameters for the origins of beer". brewing techniques. morebeer.com. issue 2.5. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017. Smith, Gregg (26 January 1998). Beer in America: The early years 1587–1840 — beer's role in the settling of America and the birth of a nation. Siris Books. ISBN 0-937381-65-9. Marowski, Phil (26 January 2024). Farmhouse Ales: Culture and craftsmanship in the Belgian tradition. Brewers Publications. ISBN 978-0-937381-84-7. Nelson, Max (26 January 2024). The Barbarian's Beverage: A history of beer in ancient Europe. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-31121-2. Oliver, Garrett (3 May 2005). The Brewmaster's Table. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-000571-8. Papazian, Charlie (August 1994). The Complete Joy of Homebrewing. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-380-77287-6. Protz, Roger (2004). The Complete Guide to World Beer. Carlton. ISBN 978-1-84442-865-6. Ricketts, Bob (January 2005). Gone for a Burton: Memories from a great British heritage. Pen Press Publishers Limited. ISBN 1-905203-69-1. Sambrook, Pamela (2 August 2003). Country House Brewing in England, 1500–1900. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 1-85285-127-9. Tierney-Jones, Adrian (26 January 2024). Big Book of Beer. CAMRA. ISBN 978-1-85249-212-0. Tierney-Jones, drian (23 March 2010). 1001 Beers You Must Taste Before You Die. National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-7893-2025-4. Tlusty, Ann (26 January 2024). Bacchus and Civic Order: The culture of drink in early modern Germany. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0-8139-2045-0. Eliášek, Jan (26 January 2024). Beer and Breweries of the Czech Republic. Vydavatelství MCU. ISBN 978-80-7339-328-1. Rail, Evan (26 January 2024). Good Beer Guide Prague & the Czech Republic. CAMRA. ISBN 978-1-85249-233-5. Vaughan, J.G.; Geissler, C.A. (1997). The New Oxford Book of Food Plants. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-854825-6. Further reading Boulton, Christopher (August 2013). Encyclopaedia of Brewing. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6744-4. Colicchio, Tom (October 2011). Oliver, Garrett (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Beer. Oxford Companion To ... (1st hardcover ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 960. ISBN 978-0-19-536713-3. Rhodes, Christine P.; Lappies, Pamela B., eds. (October 1997). The Encyclopedia of Beer (paperback reprint ed.). New York, NY: Henry Holt & Co. p. 509. ISBN 978-0-8050-5554-2. Webb, Tim; Beaumont, Stephen (October 2012). The World Atlas of Beer: The essential guide to the beers of the world (hardcover ed.). New York, NY: Sterling Epicure. ISBN 978-1-4027-8961-8. Kenning, David (2010). Beers of the World: Over 350 classic beers, lagers, ales, and porters (hardcover ed.). Bath, UK: Parragon. ISBN 978-1-4454-0878-1. Patterson, Mark W.; Hoalst-Pullen, Nancy, eds. (2023). The Geography of Beer: Policies, perceptions, and place (hardcover ed.). Cham: Springer. ISBN 978-3-031-39007-4. 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add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included. In many societies, beer is the most popular alcoholic drink. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as playing cards, darts, or other pub games; attending beer festivals; engaging in zythology; visiting a series of pubs in one evening; visiting breweries; beer-oriented tourism; or rating beer.Drinking games, such as beer pong, are also popular. Beer contains the phenolic acids 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid and sinapic acid. Alkaline hydrolysis experiments show that the most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds. Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a beer stein, a mug, a pewter tankard, a beer bottle or a can. The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style. Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion, as this increases sales. 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• Condition: New
• Brand: Guinness
• Sub-Type: Coin
• Type: Coin
• Era: 2000 - Present
• Drink Type: Stout
• Material: Metal
• Country/Region of Manufacture: Ireland

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